English for Geographers

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the ……… as a whole ceases contracting and radiates entirely by the thermonuclear conversion of hydrogen into helium.

6. Match a word in A with a word in B and translate the wordcombinations obtained:

A compact residual notable narrow parent regular

energy-producing enormous

solid helium

7.Unscramble the following words and translate them then arrange them in the alphabetic order:

aggregate, consume, dwarfs, beams, hydrogen, supernovae, luminous, intervals, residual, density, solid, helium, pressures, spheres, enormous, fluctuations, pulsar, ultimately, rate, phase, novae, neutron, subside, emission, flare-ups, hypothetical, amounts, contraction, matter, equilibrium, abundant, swing, remnant, prodigious, fuel, insignificance.

8.Arrange the following words to make up sentences:

1.A centre notable the is at the of located Crab pulsar nebula.

2.Today believe that the astronomers supernovae residual of are ordinary from dwarfs white different dwarfs.

3.Pulsars brief, emit bursts of intense radio at intervals waves regular.

4.Eventually violently stars unstable and become explode.

5.Gravitational makes the of contraction hotter stars still interior.

6.We gas and imagine the stage when a of matter star was a may an

mass irregular of, diffuse solid small, particles cool.

9. Match the word with its explanation:

hydrogen - a gas that is lighter than air and is used to make balloons float. It is a chemical element;

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Part 2

General Grammar

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Unit 1

Word Order. Wh-questions.

Word Order

Any language is composed of individual words and of grammatical devices for putting them together into large meaningful combinations. Each word makes sense, but the words aren’t related to one other in any particular way. To make a mistake is only human makes a quite different kind of sense; the words have been put together into a meaningful combination, a sentence.

English has several devices for putting words into sentences. One of the most important ones is word order.

In English, grammatical meaning is largely determined by word order. Blue sky and sky blue mean different things: in the first, blue describes sky; in the second, sky describes blue. We can see the principle in action in the following:

e. g. The hunter killed the wolf. The wolf killed the hunter.

My old friend bought a new car. My new friend bought an old car. Word Order:

(1) Verb + object

The verb and the object of the verb normally go together. We do not usually put other words between them:

(2) Place and time

We usually say the place (where?) before the time (when? how often?

It is often possible to put the time at the beginning of the sentence: e.g. On Monday I’m going to Paris.

Every morning Tom walks to work.

NOTE!

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You cannot use early or late at the beginning of the sentence.

(3) Adverbs with the verb

We put some adverbs (for example always, also, almost, hardly, often, probably) with the verb in the middle of a sentence:

e.g. Tom always goes to work by car.

We were feeling very tired. We were also hungry.

(a) If the verb is one word (goes, cooked), we usually put the adverb before the verb:

NOTE!

The adverbs always, also, often, etc. go before have to, but after am/ is/ are/ was/were:

e.g. We always have to wait a long time for the bus. We were feeling very tired. We were also hungry. The traffic isn’t usually as bad as it was this morning.

(b) Sometimes a verb is two or more words (can remember, doesn’t smoke, has been stolen etc.). We usually put the adverb after the first part of the verb:

NOTE!

In negative sentences probably goes before the negative.

So we say:

e.g. I probably won’t see you. or I will probably not see you.

(4) We also use all and both in these positions: e.g. We all felt ill after the meal.

Jack and Tom have both applied for the job. We are all going out for a meal this evening. My parents are both teachers.

Practice

1. Decide whether the word order is right or wrong. Correct the

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8.The baby is very good. She seldom cries during the night.

9.I usually am very tired when I get home from work.

10.I usually have a bath when I get home from work.

11.I cleaned the house and also cooked the dinner.

12.She fell almost over as she came down the stairs.

13.The house only was built a year ago and it’s already falling down.

14.We always have to wait a long time for the bus.

15.I won’t probably see you.

4.Rewrite the sentences and include the word in brackets:

1.Have you been arrested? (ever)

2.I don’t have to work on Saturdays. (usually)

3.Does Tom sing when he is in the bath? (always)

4.I’ll be late home this evening. (probably)

5.We are going away tomorrow. (all)

6.Don’t take me seriously. I was joking. (only)

7.Did you enjoy the party? (both)

8.I’ve got a lot of housework to do. I must write some letters. (also)

9.Tom goes to work by car. (always)

10.The traffic isn’t as bad as it was this morning. (usually)

11.He watches television. (hardly ever)

12.We are going out for a meal this meal. (all)

13.Why are you late? (always)

14.You are here when something happens. (usually)

15.You are right. (probably)

5.Put the words in brackets into the sentences in the correct order:

1.I ……… sugar in my tea. (take/usually)

2.“Where’s Jim?” “He ……… home early.” (gone/has/probably)

3.Ann ……… very generous. (is/always)

4.Ann and Tom ……… in Manchester. (both/were/both)

5.Tim is a good pianist. He ……… very well. (sing/also/can)

6.Our television set ……… down. (often/breaks)

7.We ……… a long time for the bus. (have/always/to wait)

8.My sight isn’t very good. I ……… with glasses. (read/can/only)

9.I ……… early tomorrow. (probably/leaving/will/be)

10.I’m afraid I ……… able to come to the party. (probably/be/won’t)

11.If we hadn’t taken the same train, we ……… each other.

(never/met/might/ have)

12.Her mum ……… a meal in the evening. (always/cooks)

13.We ……… that April holiday in January. (usually/book)

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14.They think that we ……… bread. (probably/got/have)

15.You ……… where you’re going. (should/always/look)

Wh-questions

Wh-questions begin with a question word (who, what, where, why, when, whose, which, how etc) “How old are you?” When there is a reposition, it usually goes at the end of the question. In formal English it can be put before the question word Who was he accused by? (more usual) By whom was he accused? (formal English)

Questions are used to ask for information or permission. They are also used to make suggestions, requests, offers or invitations. How far is the station? (information) etc.

We normally use the following question words to ask about:

● Which is used when there is a limited choice. “Which is your favourite film star – Meril Streep or Glen Close?” It can also be used

with the comparative and superlative. “Which is more comfortable, a bicycle or motorcycle?” “Which is the quickest route to Birmingham?”

●What is used when there is an unlimited choice. “What kind of music do you like?” It can also be used in the following patterns: What look like? (asking for a description of physical appearance), What for?, What colour?, What size?, What kind/sort?, What time?, What is he like? (asking for a description of character), What is it used for? etc “What colour are his eyes?” “What is your new teacher like?” – “He is friendly and patient.” “What does Ann look like?” “She’s slim with a fair complexion.”

●What and which are sometimes both possible. Which/What fruit does he like eating?

Subject/Object Questions: If who, which or what are the subject of the question, the word order is the same as in statements (subject questions). If they are the object of the question, the verb is in question form (object questions).

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hit

Practice

1.Fill in: who, whose, which, what, where, how long, how often, what time, when, how many, how much, how or why:

1.“……… starred in the film “The Godfather?” “Al Pacino.”

2.“……… calories do you consume every day?” “About 1,800.”

3.“…… of these skirts do you prefer, the blue or the pink?” “The blue one.”

4.“……… do you go to the gym?” “About once a week.”

5.“……… sugar do you take in your coffee?” “One spoonful.”

6.“……… are we going to the restaurant?” “At 6 o’clock..”

7.“……… did it take you to write your essay?” “About five hours.”

8.“……… are you crying?” “I’ve hurt my arm.”

9.“…… does your sister get back from Portugal?” “Next Wednesday.”

10.“……… is your favourite colour?” “Purple.”

11.“……… are you going on holiday this year?” “South Africa.”

12.“……… pen is this? I found it on the floor.” “It’s mine.”

13.“……… do you leave home in the morning?” “About 8 o’clock..”

14.“…… did you manage to break your arm?” “I fell off my bicycle.”

15.“……… is the new restaurant like?” “It’s extremely elegant.”

16.“……… are the children up to?” “I don’t know.”

17.“……… is the fastest way to get to Paris from here?” “By plane.”

18.“……… didn’t you call me earlier?” “I was busy.”

19.“……… is your favourite subject at school?” “Latin.”

20.“……… money have you got left?” “None.”

2.Ask questions where the word/phrase in bold is the answer:

1.Pete work for British Telecom. ………………………………….....

2.Sara owns two cars. .....……………………………….…………….

3.She is tall and fair. …………………..………………………….…

4.It’s nearly seven o’clock. …………………………………….……

5.I have French lessons twice a week. …………………….…………

6.She’s very shy and quiet. ………………………………………….

7.I went to Hawaii on holiday. ………………….....…………………

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8.There are six students in my class. …………………………………

9.I wasn’t at work today because I was ill. …………………………..

10.David’s car was stolen. …………………………...……………….

11.Shakespeare wrote “King Lear”. …………………………………

12.We’ve lived here for ten years. ………………………………...…

13.My new car cost $ 10,000. ……………………………...…………

14.Kay’s gone out shopping. ……………………………...………….

15.I’m not going out because it’s cold. ……………………………....

16.Shirley got married to Ben. ……………………………….……….

17.That’s my pen. ..……………………………..……………………..

18.The history exam was the most difficult. …………………………

19.I get up at eight o’clock in the morning. …………………………..

20.That man is the new director. …………………………………….

21.She lives in the suburbs. ………………………………………….

3.Write questions for the sentences below. The words in bold should be the answer:

1.Tom broke the window. …………………………………………….

2.Jill invited Paul to the party. ………………………………………..

3.Lions live in Africa. ………………………………………………...

4.Antony arrived late. …………………………………………….......

5.Peter opened the door. ……………………………………………...

6.Kate gave the letter to Julie. ………………………………………..

7.Jenny forgot to do her homework. ………………………………….

8.He likes basketball. ………………………………………………...

9.Hugh was rude to Jill. ………………………………………………

10.Jo lost her purse. …………………………………………………..

11.Professor Evans gave the lecture. ………………………………...

12.Jane lost the keys to her car. ………………………………………

13.Phil borrowed your car. ……………………………………………

14.Sue dropped her glasses. …………………………………………..

15.Tracy loves ice cream. …………………………………………….

16.Jeremy saw his teacher. …………………………………………...

17.James bought a Coke. ……………………………………………..

18.Jenny married Bill. ………………………………………………...

4.Write questions to which the bold type words are the answers:

Although it is commonly assumed that tortoises are simply small domestic pets, a number of large species of tortoise have been living in their

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natural environment for centuries. Tortoises in tropical regions can exceed three feet in length and records show that before it became extinct, the atlas tortoise measured almost six feet. The turtle is very similar to the tortoise but lives in the sea rather than on the land. In recent years turtles have been fished for food and their valuable oil. Conservationists are concerned about this trend, as turtles may soon become extinct.

1.What ……… .?

2.Where ……… ?

3.Where ……… ?

4.How long …... ?

5.Where ……… ?

6.What for ……. ?

7.Who ……….... ?

8.What ………... ?

5.Make questions with “who” or “what”:

1.Somebody hit me. Who……………………………………………..

2.I hit somebody. Who………………………………………………..

3.Something happened. What………………………………………....

4.Someone lives in that house. Who……………………………………….

5.Somebody gave me this key. Who……………………………………….

6.Henry gave me something. What………………………………………...

7.Tom meets someone every day. Who……………………………………

8.I fell over something. What ………………………………………………

9.Something fell on the floor. What ……………………………………….

10.This word means something. What …………………………………….

11.He wants something to eat. What ………………………………………

12.Someone invented the steam engine. Who…………………………….

13.Something happened to you last night. What …………………………

14.Somebody will go on holiday next summer. Who…………………….

Unit 2

Nouns. Determiners. Pronouns. Adjectives

Countable – Uncountable nouns

Nouns can be countable (those that can be counted) 1 egg, 2 eggs etc or uncountable (those that can’t be counted) bread, wood, etc. Uncountable nouns take a singular verb and are not used with a/an. Some, any, no, much, etc can be used with them. Luggage is obtained from the Luggage

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