A N AT O L I A T R A N S F O R M E D

Figure 4.15 Plan of As¸ag˘ ı Pınar Level VI (adapted from Özdog˘ an 2007)

Seeing red

Even though meanings escape us, we have seen that through the use of imagery and material culture Neolithic societies constructed and used complex symbolic systems. This unique ability to link a concept with a symbol, whether material or abstract such as language, is, par excellence, the hallmark of Homo sapiens. One of the most potent carriers of symbolic meaning is color. Yet despite the extensive ethnographic evidence for color symbolism among contemporary societies, this topic has received relatively little exposure in archaeology, and even less in

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Anatolia.63 Following Victor Turner’s commentary of the ritual ceremonies of the Ndembu of Zambia, many researchers support the idea that white, black, and red form a basic color triad, which carried similar meanings across many societies.64 This view is strengthened by linguistic and perception studies, which have revealed a series of complex biological, social, neurophysiological, and psychological factors involved in both the naming of color and its perception.65 It is now generally maintained that in most languages, color terminology is based on a seven-stage evolutionary sequence.66 The basic color terms are “white” and “black,” the monochromatic colors, which are followed by red. This process of naming is, in turn, connected with the complex physics and physiology of human vision, which is trichromatic like that of certain primates.67 Of all colors, red is the most salient primary color the visual system can perceive, subjectively advancing closer to the observer than any other equidistantly placed color.

Given the prominence of red in the Neolithic, it is the social context of redness that is so intriguing. Here we will restrict ourselves to the cultural significance of the color red, and ochre, its most common material referent, and briefly survey the available evidence for prehistoric Anatolia. Ochre is an earthy iron ore whose color is determined by the quantity of iron oxide. The higher the amount, the redder the ochre, like haematite; by heating yellow ochre (limonite, goethite), its color can be changed to red. Impurities such as cinnabar and clay can also affect the color and texture of ochre. These elements need to be considered because, judging by recorded instances of ochre procurement in the recent past, expeditions sometimes travelled through hostile territories and endured many privations to mine “proper” ochre, even though other sources were readily available.68 The archaeological record is replete with examples of ochre usage. They are found across five continents and extend back to the Middle Palaeolithic, with the evidence from Qafzeh Cave, in Israel, being the most thoroughly examined.69 To judge by ochre’s multifarious uses in contemporary cultures such as body adornment, ritual cleansing, and medicinal purposes, we only have a portion of the prehistoric picture. Even so, what has survived provides ample testimony on two primary uses of ochre. It was (and still is) the dominant pigment used to decorate caves and rock shelters, and, since the time of Neanderthals, who signalled a new awareness of self-existence by burying their dead, there is persistent and extensive evidence for red ochre’s symbolic role in mortuary practice. This took the form of sprinkling ochre, occasionally profusely, over the deceased, or placing pieces of ochre around the body.70 Ochre was used well before rock art and burials. At the lower Palaeolithic site of Terra Amata, in France, 60 pieces of ochre, some with abraded edges (“crayons”), were scattered among the debris of a camp, and probably used to color objects, skins, or the inhabitants themselves.

The desire of humans to decorate their bodies in any number of ways, from body art through hairstyles to clothes, enables messages to be transmitted that are understood by members within that society. Ethnography enlightens us on the magical properties of red, and its role and primacy in body art.71 When people decorate their bodies they do so for one or more purposes— social, ritual, physical/sexual, practical, and pleasure.72 In ritual contexts such as rites of passage and ceremonies, red is often accorded profound significance. It is, above all, symbolic of blood and signifies life, but its association with hunting and war also means it can stand for aggression

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