Тема: Мовні моделі привітання, прощання.

Мета: навчити студентів правильно користуватися лексикою до теми; розвивати навички монологічного та діалогічного мовлення, навички послідовного перекладу; виховувати культуру мовлення. Удосконалення граматичних навичок вживання пасивного стану в часах групи Perfect

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План заняття

І Організаційний момент. Привітання

II. Перевірка домашнього завдання.

ІІІ. Основна частина.

There are many important areas to study when people are learning English as a second language. Teaching this language involves four aspects that we research in this work: taboos and exchanges, festivals and folklore, holidays and school schedules, and greetings and farewells.

Greetings and farewells are necessary in every language, because the “going-on-well” of a relationship, depends directly on the first contact.

English people have differents habits, with regard to this subject.

When a Spanish woman first meets ( and after says “good-bye ) an English man/woman, she goes right to his/her face and kiss twice on their cheeks. This contact, that is an everyday thing in Spain, is totally opposite to the English tradition of greeting and farewell. English people only kiss to their family. Maybe between women is a more extended habit, but not in all social levels.

Spanish people are used to maintain any little touch when conversating, thing that is unthinkable in English habitual relationships. This common touch refers to the area of haptics (any touching between humans).

Another important point in greetings and farewells is proxemics that deals with spatial concepts. There are four zones in one's personal space: public, social, personal and intimate. The inappropriate invasion of these space zones can be used to exhibit power or domination.

Returning to the Spanish example, Spanish people when conversating, are very close to their partner/s. In English relations, this is seeing as an invasion of the personal space.

All the examples shown, just demonstrate one thing: greetings and farewells in teaching English as foreign language, is one of the most important subjects.

1.2.Learning and using a non-native language.

Fishman (1971) writes that a frequent comment about American traveller abroad is that they know, at most, only one variety of the language of the country they are visiting. As result, they speak in the same way to a child, a professor, a shoe cleaner or a shopkeeper. This reveals not only their foreignness but also their ignorance of the appropriate ways of symbolising a social relationship linguistically.

What is essential to realise is that a word-view underlies all of cultural behaviour of which language is but an apart. However, it is generally the linguistic channel via which culture and its accompanying thought-word is felt to be active. An Englishman below acutely describes this feeling:

"When I speak German to Germans, I automatically shift my orientation as a social being. I spontaneously adapt myself to the atmosphere characteristic of their status, outlook, and prejudices. The very use of the customary formulae of politeness injects a distinct flavour into the conversation, colouring attitudes and behaviour. Some of these modes of expression, to be sure, are merely meaningless formulae, but by no means all. The retention of titles, in European fashion, for example, colours mutual relations, as does the free and easy American way of dropping them altogether." ( Lowie 1945, p. 257 ).

These observations reveal how speaking another language may involve adopting another outlook on life. It is not the second language learner per se which calls for this but the body of beliefs and practices contained in the second language culture, which are reflected and expressed in linguistic interaction.

Classroom culture: the Latin American students, for example, surprise/displease the teacher in their different attitudes towards spatial distance and body touching, because they are less distant than Anglos, as well their louder and spontaneous expression of emotion.

If any readers have tough speakers of cultures different from their own they are probably well aware of the problems, prejudices and antagonism evoked by conflicting cultural attitudes in the second language classroom, and the necessity to overcome this through cultural awareness.

Cultural and contextual ways: the paralinguistic (facial and gestual), proxemic (spatial), and language-organisational patterns which are so essential for communicating are closely orchestred with our speech. They are also carefully studied by those in communication with us in order to understand what we mean in a fuller and more accurated way, beyond the mere words we utter.

Symbolising patterns: there are actually many cases where habitual verbal patterns which are satisfactorily employed in a first language for dealing with recurrent situations will cause problems if transferred to a second language context. This is particularly so with formulae. Every speech community possesses a stock of ritual routines which may not include formulae for greeting, leave taking, thanking, apologising, congratulating, stumbling, cursing, toasting, introducing and so on. When speakers employ formulae, they draw upon the community's resources and demonstrate recognisable familiarity with and loyalty to the community's code and implicity to its values since the petrified forms relate and refer to a special, historically given social framework. Adherence to this framework is expressed and partly achieved in the employment of formulae which in turn, contributes to an affirmation of the social order which is metaphorically alluded to in the uses of the formulae (Loveday 1981).

When first language speakers do not possess formulistic competence they can be interpreted not only as lacking in politeness and sophistication but also as incompletely socialised. Formulae also define status and the situation, e.g. "hi" versus "Good morning".

To illustrate this there is a Japanese example: Japanese speakers express gratitude more intensively by means of apologies:

“...During my early days in America - when a psychiatrist who was my superior did some kindness or other - I have forgotten exactly what, but it was something quite trivial. Either way, feeling the need to say something, I produced not “Thank-you” as one might expect, but “I'm sorry”.”What are you sorry for?” he replied promptly, giving me an odd look. I was highly embarrassed. My difficulty in saying ´thank-you´ arose, I imagine, from a feeling that it implied too great an equality with someone who was in fact my superior...The reason, of course, was undoubtedly my deficiency in English at that time. But I had already begun to have an inkling the difficulty I faced involved something more than the language barrier” (Doi 1977, p.122).

What the Japanese psychologist was facing here was a different cultural interpretation of what for him was a simple linguistic symbolisation of gratitude.

1.3. Politeness in communication.

Politeness and politeness formulas: because speech events regularly include both a speaker-writer and a listener-reader, it is not surprising that language is particularly sensitive, in the rules for speech use, to the relations between the two parties. Just as good actor can utter a single sentence expressing a wide range of emotional states of the speaker, so the choice of an appropriate message form can be modified to express a wide range of attitudes of the speaker to the listener. Given the same general situation, I can pass information or make a request or simple greet in a whole set of different ways that will define my attitude to the listener and the importance I give him/her.

In its simplest terms, politeness consists of this recognition of the listener and his or her rights in the situation. Requests, which are an imposition on the listener, are mitigated by being made indirectly, as questions (Could you possibly pass me the salt?) or as statements (´I think that is the salt beside your plate), or by adding formulas like ´Please´and ´if you would be so kind´. Social relations are eased by complimenting (´I do like your new car!´or ´Congratulations´).In some laguages,there are elaborated sets of politeness formulas,like in Arabic saying mabruk to someone who has just bought something new,or na? iman to someone who has just had a haircut or a bath or a short nap. For each formula, there is an appropriate reply, ´allah ybarik fik´ (may God bless you) to the first and ´allah yn?am?alek´ (may God refresh you) to the second.In American-English, the equivalent is saying ´You´re welcome´in reply to ´Thank-you´.

The most common kind of politeness formulas are involved with greetings. Greetings are the basic oil of social relations. To fail to greet someone who expects to be greeted, signals either some unusual distraction or a desire to insult the person. Each social group has its own set of rules about who should be greeted, who should greet first and what is an appropriate form of greeting.

English greetings range from an informal ´Hi!' through a neutral ´Good morning´ to a slowly disappearing formal ´How do you do!'. It is common to add a second part of the greeting, a purely phatic ´How are you!´ to which no reply is expected. Arab greetings use an elaborated set of paired greetings-plus-responses, depending on time of day or other social aspects of the situation.

The study of greetings, therefore, provides a first useful method of exploring the structure of a social group. A second area showing patterned variation in speech and similarly studied within the ethnography of communication has been the conditions on the use of terms of address.

Terms of address: a related phenomenon in languages that do not have the Tu (in French)/Vous (also in French) distinction is the use of address terms. English once had the thou/you distinction and still offers a range of address terms, ranging from Title Alone (Sir, Your Majesty, Madam, Constable) through Title + Last Name (Mr. Jones, Dr. Smith, Lord Clark, Miss Jones, Mrs. Jones, perhaps, Ms. Jones) to First Name to Multiple Names (including Nicknames). The conditions for choosing vary socially. Increasingly, in North America and British academic circles, people who have just been introduced as ´Professor X, meet Dr.Y´move inmediately to first names. There are still interesting cases of uneven usage. American doctors and dentists use first names to all their patients, but expect Dr. X in return. Teachers in many societies receive Title or Title + Last Name, but return first name (or in some schools, last name).

Title plus first or last name is a common pattern in many languages. Non-relatives may also be addressed with terms of relationships, as in an English pattern of training children to address adults of the parent's generation as Uncle John or Auntie Mary.

Military usage related to address systems shows special patterns. Peacetime armies with strict discipline and emphasis on ceremonial are likely to have strict rules for addressing superiors. In the US Marine Corps, senior officers were addressed in the third person (´Would the General like me to bring him a cup of coffee?') and other officers received ´sir' from their inferiors. Non-commissioned officers were addressed by rank (´Yes, sergeant.'). In a different setting, such as under battle conditions, things changed. An officer was addressed directly, often by a regular nickname. Company commanders, for instance, were addressed as ´Skipper´and sergeant majors as ´Gunny´. More democratic armies often make a point of dropping special address rules along with saluting. These changes parallel the changes from Vous to Tu under similar circumstances.

The ethnography of speaking moved the focus of analysis from the sentence to the speech event, and offered a first approach to the analysis of natural speech, by showing patterns that could be understood if social information were included. In this, as in any other study of language in use, the aspect that became more obvious to the sociolinguist was the existence of regularly patterned variation. It provided a wider canvas on which to paint the complexity of language behaviour in its social setting and technique for capturing some of the ways in which each may reflect the other. It opened up the way to the study of language in use, to the importance of different channels, to the critical importance of relations between speaker and hearer, and to the social context of language.

1.4. Communication skills.

Communication skills: body language is one of the most important conversational skills. Research indicates that 70% of communication is non-verbal. Body language can communicate our feelings and attitudes. Examples of receptive body language: open posture, eye contact and friendly smile. Examples of non-receptive body language: closed posture, little eye contact and no-smile. Non-receptive body language often leads to short non-sustancial conversations. First impressions need to be positive and friendly.

Pleasant smile is strong indication of a friendly and open attitude and willingness to communicate. It is appositive, non-verbal signal sent with the hope that the other person will smile back. When you smile, you demonstrate that you have noticed the person in appositive manner. The other person considers it acompliment and will usually feel good. The result? The other person will usually smile back. Smiling does not mean that you have to put on a phony face or pretend that you are happy all of the time. But when you see someone you know, or would like to make contact with, do smile. By smiling you are demonstrating an open attitude to conversation.

You might not realise that closed posture is the cause of many conversational problems. Typical closed posture is sitting with your arms and legs crossed and your hand covering your mouth or chin. This is often called “thinking pose”, but just ask yourself this question: Are you going to interrupt someone who appears to be deep in thought? Not only does this posture give off “stay away” signals to others, but also prevents your main “signal sender” (your mouth) from being seen by others looking for receptive conversational signals. Without these receptive signals, another person will most likely avoid you and look for someone who appears to be more available for contact.

To overcome this habitual way of standing or sitting, start by keeping your hands away from your mouth, and keep your arms uncrossed. Crossed arms tend to indicate a defensive frame of mind, and thus one not particularly favourable to outside contact. They can also indicate impatience, displeasure, or judgement - any of which would discourage people from opening up.

Open posture is most effective when you place yourself within communicating distance of the other person - that is, within about five feet. Take care, however not to violate someone's “personal space” by getting too close, too soon.

Leaning forward slightly while a person is talking to you indicates interest on your part, and shows you are listening to what the person is saying. This is usually taken as a compliment by the other person, and will encourage him to continue talking.

Often people will lean back with their hands over their mouth, chin or behind their head in the “thinking” poses. This posture gives off signals of judgement, scepticism, and boredom from the listener. Since most people do not feel comfortable when they think they are being judged, this leaning back posture tends to inhibit the speaker from continuing.

It is far better to lean forward slightly in a casual and natural way. By doing this, you are saying: ´I hear what you're saying and I'm interested - keep talking!' This usually let's the other person feel that what he is saying is interesting, and encourages him to continue speaking.

In many cultures the most acceptable form of first contact between two people who are just meeting is a warm Hancock. This is true when meeting members of the same or opposite sex - and not just in business, but in social situations, too. In nearly every situation, a warm and firm handshake is a safe and positive way of showing an open and friendly attitude toward the people you meet.

Be the first to extend your hand in greeting. Couple this with a friendly ´Hello', a nice smile, and your name, and you have made the first step to open the channels of communication between you and the other person.

The strongest of the non-verbal gestures are sent through the eyes. Direct eye contact indicates that you are listening to the other person, and that you want to know about him/her.

Eye contact should be natural and not forced or overdone. It is perfectly okay to have brief periods of eye contact while you observe other parts of the person's face - particularly the mouth. When the person smiles, be sure to smile back. But always make an effort to return your gaze to the person's eyes as he/she speaks. It is common to look up, down, and all around when speaking to others, and it's acceptable not to have eye contact at all times.

Too much eye contact, especially if it is forced, can be counterproductive. If you stare at a person, or leer in a suspicious manner, the other person may feel uncomfortable and even suspicious about your intentions. A fixed stare can appear as aggressive behaviour if it takes the form of a challenge as to who will look away first.

1.5. Non-verbal miscommunication.

Sara's supervisor approaches her about the financial analysis that she is preparing for Tuesday's meeting. He walks towards her, leans on the edge of her desk, and looks down to question her. His position, high above Sara, looking down, causes Sara to become uneasy and fidgety. She ruffles her papers and updates her boss on the progress of the analysis, exhaling a sigh of relief when he leaves her desk. Sara's supervisor has caused an anxious response by invading her personal space, and made her intimidated by her boss' body language. Non-verbal communication, commonly referred to as body language, gives clues to our innermost thoughts and desires, our non-verbal communication can send strong signals about our desire for dominance or power, but if misread by another can send an incorrect and inappropriate signal.

Body language is not simply how our hand move or where we lean. The field of non-verbal communication covers all aspects of our bodies. Therefore, before we begin a study of powerplays through non-verbal communication, let me examine some basics concepts of body language. Physical appearance refers to one's “image, attractiveness, race, height, weight, body shape, hairstyle, dress and artefacts”(Masterson p.1).

Appearance plays role because we all make certain assumptions based on one's physical appearance; firm eyes, a general look of stability, still hands, big fingers, large nostrils, and one overriding facial feature contribute to the “look of power”(Korda p.16). Kinesics, a word derived from the Greek word for movement, encompasses any movement except those that involve touch. Kinesics, which is further broken down into categories such as diactics, metamorphics, emblematics, and other similarly cryptic and confusing subgroups, all refer to the way our body “speaks” to others via its movements. In specific reference to the facial area is occulesics, which many non-verbal scholars exalt as the most significant form of non-verbal communication. The movement of eyes, crinkling of the nose, and raising of the eyebrow all fall under occulesics. Most important to our exploration of dominance and power are the areas of haptics and proxemics. Haptics refers to any touching between humans. Whether it is between two lovers or a chiropractor and his patient, haptics tells us about the touch's purpose as an indicator of the participants' relationship. As we shall soon see, touch can be used in an unequal power relationship to intimidate or motivate. Finally, proxemics refers to the area of personal space that exists between humans. The example at the start of this writing describes Sara's response to personal space invasion; personal space invasion is one of the most intimidating forms of non-verbal communication when inappropriate.

Researcher E.T. Hall created the term proxemics in 1.963, which is the area of non-verbal communication study that deals with spatial concepts; he categorises one's personal space into four zones: public, social, personal and intimate. The inappropriate invasion of these space zones can be used to exhibit power or domination. The four zones of personal space can be likened to four doors. The first door is unlocked and open to everyone (public space). This space is used for public speaking and separates people by 12 feet or more. The second door, accessible only after you “penetrate” the first, is social distance. Acquaintances and those without a large degree of intimacy are allowed into the social distance zone, which extends from 4 to 12 feet. Door #3 is the personal space zone, which converse within each other's personal space zone. The fourth and final zone is the intimidate space zone, which ranges from 6 to 18 inches. This zone, strictly reserved for those who have a high degree of intimacy, is used for “embracing and whispering” (Scrolls p.2).

These zones, if invaded by an unwanted person, will cause uncomfort and anxiety in the person whose space is being incurred. Business executives are actually trained to invade other's space, causing others to become anxious, establishing their superiority and dominance. One example is the “overrunning technique” that executives use at meetings and lunches. The purpose is to make a frontal assault, therefore intimidating and overpowering. The powerplayer will gradually and slowly, throughout the course of the meeting, encroach upon another's personal space. The executive may remove her wallet from her purse, her lipstick, and then a mirror or changepurse, gradually placing them on the other side of the table where another is sitting. A male executive might pull the same maneuver by placing a lighter, cigarettes, his wallet, and other trinkets on the opposite side of the table. A wargame is almost played out on the table: the point is to take over their space and dominate. One person attempts to occupy as much of the other's space as possible. Outside of the business world, personal space invasion is just as intimidating. Walking down the street, and unknown stranger who passes too closely (i.e. in social, personal, or intimate space) we make the passer-by very cautious. A man “moving in” on his romantic target too quickly sounds alarm in the object of his eye. His use of aggressive proxemic and haptic behaviour is easily read by the one he seeks, and causes uncomfort because he appears too forward and dominating.

In social interactions, the person with more power sends signals with there eyes to show dominance; our eyes in particular control interpersonal interactions. Our eyes sending slight yet easily decipherable signals that are the most common form of "social control" (Webbink p.36). Webbink later says that eye behaviour "reveals the balance of power: persons of greater power stare at others more, look less than they listen, and command a larger visual `space´, while persons with less power avert their gaze when stared at, look more attentively as they listen, and assume less visual space." Those wishing to assume a greater power role can adopt the eye behaviour of powerful people. Making little eye contact while listening, as if the speaker must beg for your attention, and staring at someone (thereby showing that you are not afraid to look at them) proves to enhance someone's role as a powerful figure. Those adopting these techniques, however, need to be mindful to not appear hostile. Those already in a power role, such as teacher's presence in the classroom (Hodge p.264 as quoted in Webbink p.45). In assertiveness training programme for teachers showcased the use of forceful eye contact, using the child's first name, and placing a hand on the student's shoulder. The combination of dominant eye contact, an encroaching on the student's personal space makes the student know that the teacher is serious.

The teacher is very purposeful in sending non-verbal communication signals, but some people will mistakenly send inappropriate power and dominance signals that misread. Many factors influence our non-verbal communication, and misunderstandings and cultural differences can make one party alarmed or anxious when it is uncalled for. Gender, ethnicity, and age are all determinants of our non-verbal behaviour. In proxemics tests, separated by gender, female dyads stand closer to each other; mixed dyads stand the next closest, while all-male dyads stand the farthest apart (cited in Remland 2). Women and mixed sex dyads also use more touch than all-male dyads (Remland 2). Overall, many studies confirm that women are more accepting of touch and proximate behaviour than men. Women are not held back by the worldwide stereotype that necessitates a certain "roughness and toughness" in men. Women are "allowed" by society to approach each other closer and touch each other more, whereas men who stand close and touch often are accused of being homosexual by other men, even when no basis for accusation exists.

Our ethicity also determines non-verbal communication. Americans live in a culture that does not promote close touch (Scrolls p.3) and extended eye contact. Even between close friends, Americans are very conscious of their personal space (Scrolls p.3). In a tightly packed subway car or on a crowded dance floor, Americans make every effort to hold onto their sense of personal space and "individuality". Americans avoid any eye contact, and brush up against others with the most "asexual" parts of their bodies: when forced to touch, Americans touch with their arms and sides of the body, and only when absolutely necessary. Other cultures differ greatly; in fact, many cultures encourage proximate and kinesic behaviour. Based on a study by Remland et alii, touching was observed by 12.5% of the overall sample group. 21% of Greeks used touch, while percentages for "non-contact" cultures became smaller; 14% of Italians, 12% of Irish, 11% of English, 5% of French, and only 4% of Dutch used in normal conversation.Формування граматичних навичок

The Passive Voice

Present perfect

passive subject	'to be'	past participle
The resolution	has been	prepared
The delegates	have been	elected

Past perfect

passive subject	'to be'	past participle
The coat	had been	sold	by that time

Future perfect

passive subject	'to be'	past participle
He	will have been	examined	by next year

EXERCISE 1 Turn the following into the Passive Voice

1We turn on the light when it is dark. 2. The students finished their translation in time. 3. Helen washed the dishes. 4. Betty often took her younger brother for a walk. 5. Mother has made some coffee. 6. Have you ironed your dress yet? 7. Nina mispronounced this word. 8. They have told her the truth. 9. She promised us an interesting entertainment. 10. One uses chalk for writing on the blackboard. 11. I shall finish my work about seven o'clock. 12. Somebody has opened the door. 1.3. The waitress brought in the coffee. 14. One of my friends took me to the cinema last week. 15. We shall finish this work in time. 16. They built this house in 1960. 17. They were selling new children's books in that shop when I entered it yesterday. 18. Alarge group of young people joined us on our way to the station. 19. Ayoung teacher started a school in this village. 20. They are translating this article now. 21. Galsworthy wrote «The Forsyte Saga.» 21. Thousands of people attended this meeting. 22. He has just interrupted me. 23. The teacher has explained it to us.

EXERCISE 2 Turn the following into the Passive Voice

1. They did not invite her to the party. 2. I did not leave the window open. 3. They did not turn off the light. 4. I have invited some friends to tea 5. She has given me an English book. 6. Have you written the letter yet? 7. They have told us a lot оS interesting things. 8. The students have written the test-paper without mistakes. 9. The children have scattered about a lot of things. 10. The girl has put all the books into the bookcase. 11. Snov, will cover the fields in winter. 12. They will hand in the homework tomorrow. 13. I don't think we shall finish all the preparations today. 14. She al ways invites me to her dinner parties. 15. Shot showed me the dress which her daughter had made.16. We discussed the matter some days ago.17. Someone wants you on the phone. 18. She found my book on the window-sill. 19. They have built excellent shelters for tourists in these mountains. 20. Have you given the exercises to all the students? 21. The boy was angry because his mother did not allow him to go to the stadium. 22. Why have you put my books on this table?

Домашнє завдання. Переказувати текст

Заняття № 20

Тема: Мовні моделі вибачення, погодження.

Мета: навчити студентів правильно користуватися лексикою до теми; розвивати навички монологічного та діалогічного мовлення, навички послідовного перекладу; виховувати культуру мовлення. Удосконалення граматичних навичок вживання пасивного стану в часах групи Perfect

Обладнання: роздруківки завдань до теми, підручник.

Час проведення: 2 години.