Including athletes, transport workers,

spectators and other workers

Figure 4.10 Some economic linkages and flows between people affected by the Olympics

Figure 4.11 A cruiser plying between Circular Quay and Darling Harbour on Sydney's famous harbour

Future travel

In order for tourists to be able to travel to their des­tinations, they depend on a variety of forms of trans­port. In his 1873 novel Around the World in Eighty Days, Jules Verne had an adventurous tourist, Phileas Fogg, seek to win a bet by completing a round-the-world journey in less than, for what was at that time an unbelievably fast, eighty days. Over the past 120 years, the speed of travel, on land and especially in

Figure 4.12 A busker performing at Circular Quay on Sydney Harbour — with an emphasis on 'Australiana'

the air, has become so advanced that the modern tourist, using scheduled airliners, can complete the same journey in less than a week.

What are the issues?

A few years ago, passenger-aircraft manufacturers chose two separate pathways to the future of air travel and tourism. A European consortium developed the

100

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

supersonic Concorde that, since 1976, has flown about 100 passengers across the Atlantic, each time at greater than the speed of sound. Other companies chose to make much larger planes that, although built to fly at less than the speed of sound, could carry many more passengers on each trip, in a cheaper and quieter way. The latter type of plane has continued to grow in size, and the current Boeing 747 ('jumbo jet') can seat up to 400 passengers. Although plans have al­ready been drawn for a double-decker version that could carry 560 people, it is a 480-seat version that is planned to be ready for flight by 2000.

Over the past twenty years, the efficiency entailed in shifting so many people at once has provided the tourism industry with a major impetus, and transport developments have to match potential travellers' ability to pay. It is estimated that passenger-aircraft loads will reach between 600 and 800 as the technology improves. Many social and environmental considera­tions have to be examined if the airline industry chooses to continue to make ever bigger planes. A major consideration is safety: the thought of a crash of an aircraft carrying 800 people is horrific.

Aircraft manufacturers have not abandoned their plans to develop extra-fast aircraft. An international consortium is using experience acquired through developing the Concorde and through working on space-engineering projects such as the Space Shuttle in order to test the viability of developing an aircraft codenamed 'HSCT - 'high-speed civil transport'. The aircraft would be able to carry 300 passengers at 2600 kilometres per hour at an altitude of about 20,000 metres. Table 4.4 presents a comparison between the existing Boeing 747 and Concorde and the HSCT.

Disadvantages

● One reason why the Concorde is used on the Atlantic route rather than on routes over settled land is that it makes a destructive noise - sonic boom - when accelerating and slowing through the speed of sound. Although for the HSCT the noise is planned to be less at ground level, ap­proval to fly the craft over land is not necessarily assured.

● Because it would fly at very high altitudes, con­cern exists about the effects of the nitrogen-ox­ide emissions on the ozone layer.

Advantages

● For the craft to be worthwhile it is estimated it would have to be able to carry its passengers at a cost of about only 10 per cent more than that of usual ticket prices.

● The reason for planning the craft is that it would bring to international travel an enormous time saving: in many cases, travel time over the main routes would be almost halved - see the diagram in Figure 4.13 on page 102.

Tourism further into the future

Predicting longer term trends is much less certain and involves the use of informed imagination. In thinking about the more distant future, we have more time to consider the alternative directions that tourism could take. We are therefore able to help the parties in­volved to make the best decisions for the world and its people.

Table 4.4 A comparison of selected current and future aircraft models

S pecifications Boeing 747 Concorde HSCT

N umber of passengers 420 100 280

Length (metres) 70.7 62.1 94.7

Wing span (metres) 25.4 25.5 14.4

A lthough building the planned HSCT aircraft is feasible using a range of new technologies, other issues have to be resolved. Making the decision about whether it will ever go into production will require a lot of complex inquiring into the disadvantages and advantages for everyone involved. These are outlined as follows.

What alternative decisions can be made? What impacts would each one have?

If the current general trends continue, and if the possibilities already mentioned take shape, a whole range of new factors will probably affect tourism. It is very likely that these factors will include the fol­lowing.

• New tourist destinations

• New forms of travel

• New technologies for helping tourists

• New tourist activities

• New world views

• New population concentrations and pressure

• New controls on tourist movement

• New definitions of tourism

• New attitudes towards tourism

We will now briefly examine each factor in turn.

101

Т 0 U R I S M

То London, ENGLAND

То Los Angeles. THE UNITED STATES

Figure 4.13 Current and future air-travel times between Australia and three of our major overseas destinations

New tourist destinations

One trend that has escalated in recent years is that of many tourists' being passionate about visiting remote and, previously, rarely visited places. Wealthy people, in particular, are now able to fly over Mount Everest and Mount Erebus - will they, in the future, be able to visit the moon, or even Mars? We will have to consider the issues involved in using the earth's resources for this type of venture and attempt to assess what the activities' social and environmental impacts will be.

New forms of travel

In popular movies, videos and television programs such as 'Star Trek', 'Back to the Future' and 'Doctor Who', as well as in books, comics and computer games, science fiction has given us visions of travel in the more distant future. In these media, people are able to move easily over enormous distances and through time in order to have unique experiences of other places and peoples - see the photograph in Figure 4.15 on page 104. Throughout your lifetime, it is likely that most people will continue to travel by the means we are familiar with, although these will

102

be greatly refined and improved. The advances will be a great boon to tourism, but they will also bring greater potential for negative impacts on communi­ties and environments.

New technologies for helping tourists

Travel agents already use computers in order to ac­cess tourist information, booking schedules and time­tables in their efforts to aid travellers. They are also able to instantly print itineraries and tickets and to confirm reservations by computer. Tourists are already able to carry small hand-held computers that provide them with advice about the route, the traffic condi­tions, time, distance, accommodation, restaurants and attractions. Getting lost in a desert or forest is no longer a problem if you carry a small 'GPS' - 'Global Posi­tioning System' - that can locate you to the accuracy of a few centimetres. Although this device is costly at present, a cheaper version may well be available in the future. Pocket computers are currently being developed to be able to translate from one spoken language to another; they will be a 'blessing' for in­ternational travellers.

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

^{Flying to the Future}

By Travel Writer STUART INNES

The airliner of tomorrow will make the

747s of today seem like old Dakotas.

Within a decade the 747s which carry 400 passengers, will be obsolete.

On the drawing boards is a super­sonic plane able to fly from Adelaide to London in just 11 hours, including refuelling stops - less than half the present time.

And there is also a double or triple-decker aircraft which will carry up to 1000 passengers.

By only 1997, airlines will have a long-range version of the current Air­bus A340, able to stay in the air more than. 18 hours and to fly non-stop be­tween Europe and Australia., They will have lower-deck passenger beds;

The coming aircraft — perhaps less fanciful "and more realistic than visu­ alised a few years ago - were detailed this weekatAnsett Australia's Flying to the Future seminar for travel writ­ ers at Hayman Island resort in Queens­ land.

Boeing International's sales direc­tor, Mr Lane Soholt, said Boeing was working on a high-speed civil trans­port (HSCT) to carry up to 300 pas­sengers at Mach 2.4.

That is 1600 miles, of 2500km, an hour - three times the speed of the latest Boeing 747 and faster than, the now aged but stiHelite-blass Con­corde, the first supersonic passenger

jet.

The HSCT would have a range of about 9000km. Boeing is doing its planning on the assumption sonic

boom (from flying above the speed of sound) will not be permitted over land. That means flying east from Australia to London, refuelling at the bottom of South America.

Boeing's HSCT would be about 95m long, 25m longer than the latest 747. But its wingspan would be less, caus­ing fewer problems on airport aprons and.its take-off weight would be less than a 747's.

"There are certainly significant tech­nical challenges," Mr Soholt said, re­ferring to propulsion, aerodynamics, materials durability and ease of main­tenance. "But I don't believe any are insurmountable."

He said research showed fewer than half existing international travellers would want to pay more just to get there quicker. It seemed 20 per cent on top ofsubsonic airfares was all that would be accepted.

Travellers would have to decide how much time saved was worm to them. Flights of 10 1/2 hours between the UK and Sydney and seven hours - instead of 14- between Sydney and the United States, would give more time for busi-­ ness or leisure. And people, who suf-­ fered travel tiredness would benefit from the shorter trips. There werethe pressing costs of de­- veloping the technology and building and running the plane, however. Mr. Soholt said: Boeing was working with. NASA on these and other issues including environmental.

He said the technology was likely to be achieved" by 2005 and the aircraft available by 2010.

Airbus Industries' vice-president of forecasting and strategic planning, Mr_: Adam Brown, told the seminar world airline travel was on the threshold of another step up, to the 550-1000 pas-senger jetliner.

"More than a quarter of a century after the entry into service of the 747, the world's air transport industry now stands on the brink of another evolu­tionary leap," he said.

Rapid growth in air travel meant, the Asia-Pacific region alone would have 2.5 times as many flights by 2014 as now, putting great stress on air traffic control and airport conges-tion, already, critical in some cities.

A way around this was to have more passengers on each flight.

Airbus Industries was working on an A3XX model, slightly shorter than a 747 but with 30 to 40 per cent more seats (about 560) and designed to allow a straightforward fuselage stretch to seat 630 in three-class or about 1000 passengers in a single-class, configuration. "The volume available, in the fuselage will allow radically new concepts of cabin com­fort, convenience and flexibility."

This super-jumbo could include a conference centre in the main cabin or in a lower deck, a fitness centre at the rear of each deck and a passenger lounge on both of the main decks or lower deck, to relax away from the normal seats.

"Aircraft for the first time willhave facilities similar to those on cruise liners," Mr Brown said.

'' ■ ."

Figure 4.14 Newspaper article (Extracted from the Advertiser, Adelaide, 2 September 1995)

New tourist activities

Over the past twenty years, a whole range of tourist activities - such as hang gliding - have sprung up in order to satisfy the demand for new thrills and to fill

increased leisure time. It is expected that the range will expand even more rapidly as the existence of both new technologies and greater affluence, as well as human imagination, prompt tourists to seek new experiences.

103

TOURISM

Figure 4.15 The Space Shuttle - a future mode of travel?

New world views

Many of us have undergone a shift from the predomi­nantly twentieth-century mechanistic interest in dis­crete aspects of the world to a more holistic and global view of it, whereby relationships between peoples, and between peoples and their environments, are valued. The shift is expressed in human pursuits such as religious and spiritual revival and in rekindling of interest in caring for the biophysical environment. Through this increasing awareness, people not only wish to visit a place on the planet; they wish to nur­- ture it.

New population concentrations and

pressure

Over the next forty years, the world's population is expected to double to more than eleven billion, a development that will lead to at least a doubling of the number of tourists travelling to various destina­tions. This concentration of people, local and non­local, may impact dramatically on the local communities and environments. Ways of accommo­dating or avoiding these likely problems are required urgently and have to be considered when tourist de­velopments are being planned.

New control on tourist movement

People who are concerned about the health of the world's people are already worried about the impact made by large numbers of people moving from place to place. Any country, Australia included, can export or import diseases through tourism. Most countries use mandatory controls in order to prevent some dis­eases entering and also give advice in order to pre­vent the spread of other diseases. The problem may become more severe in the future, thereby leading to the enforcement of more stringent controls, as tourist numbers increase, and diseases either appear for the first time - as in the case of HIV-AIDS - or reappear in more virulent forms - as in the case of malaria and cholera. Regulations and quarantine are already simi­larly used in order to impede the spread of disease in animals - as in the case of rabies and foot-and-mouth disease - and plants. Many countries concentrate on providing tourists with sound advice and education instead of introducing more controls that may dis­courage tourism.

The jumbo jet lives on!

One thousand 747 jumbo jets have been built since 1968 when Boeing built the first one. In that short time, more than 100 international and domestic carriers using the 420-seat passenger jet have carried more than 1.4 billion passengers around the world. This has proved to be the safest, most reliable and economical way of moving masses of overseas-bound people and people using inter-city routes that have huge traffic volumes. Although at a cost of A$125 million each jumbo aircraft is expensive, no other major aircraft manufacturer has been able to equal its success. The refinements in comfort, speed and economy that have been made to each model have guaranteed the jumbo's continuing success.

Activity 9

Refer to the newspaper article in Figure 4.1.4 on page 103 entitled 'Flying to the future' and the section entitled 'The jumbo jet lives on!'. An­swer questions a to d as follows.

Questions

a Describe and explain how important the jumbo jet has been for world tourism over the past twenty-five years.

b What does the future hold for the jumbo jet, and will the jumbo jet continue to domi­nate the skies?

с How is world air travel likely to change over the next twenty-five years?

104

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

d i Investigate and report on some of the attempts currently being made to con­trol the spread of disease or pests by tourists in places in which the spread would impact on humans, animals or plants.

ii Suggest ways in which the problem may change in the future and how it may be controlled. Hint: Use maps when pos­sible.

'tourism by remote control". Through the develop­ment of better technologies in this area, the need to invent increasingly big and fast means of moving people may be reduced.

Activity 10

Describe the advantages and disadvantages of possible futuristic forms of tourism through which we might get most of our experiences in the indirect ways foreseen by writers such as E. . M. Forster.

New definitions of tourism

A future definition of tourism may focus on the ex­perience of other places and peoples and omit the 'movement' element, as television, virtual reality and new communications technologies become so realis­tic that people no longer desire to travel - their cu­riosity about other places would be satisfied through the rich experiences they have of these new media. In 1909, long before television was invented, the novelist E. M. Forster wrote The Machine Stops, a short story in which the main character, Vashti, typifies the rest of humanity and lives her whole life isolated in an underground room. Her only contact with the outside world is through the 'Machine' that enables her to see and hear other people and to experience other places. In the story, people gain their seaside experiences secondhand as they watch and listen to a lecaire on the sea delivered by a person who has bravely gone to visit it recently. Vashti's son wants her to travel in order to visit him, but she is not keen to, for the reason cited in the extract in Figure 4.16.

Few travelled these days, for thanks to the advance in science, the earth was exactly alike all over… Men [sic] seldom moved their bodies; all unrest was concentrated in the soul.

Figure 4.16 Extract from The Machine Stops

We should remember that we already get most of our images and experiences of other places vicari­ously through media such as books, newspapers and television; new inventions may simply make the proc­ess much more powerful. We are already able to 'visit' otherwise inaccessible tourist destinations such as the wreck of the Titanic on the Atlantic Ocean floor, a Spanish galleon in the Pacific Ocean, and the surface of another planet, using modern technology -

New atiitasfe towards tourism

People who have a concern for socially just and ecologically sustainable development are increasingly promoting tourism based on ethical principles. These people are guided by the following seven basic prin­ciples.

• Promotion of awareness of tourism's role in de­velopment issues

• Facilitation of development of local tourism ini­tiatives

• Denunciation of unjust and damaging tourism practices

• Provision of opportunities for people affected by tourism developments to participate in decision making involving them

• Focusing on tourism's effects on Third World peoples and places

• Encouragement of community action in order to protect local environments

• Stimulation of relevant research

One example of this type of thinking is provided in the code of ethics reproduced in Figure 4.17 on page 106. This was drawn up by the Ecumenical Coa­lition on Third World Tourism (ECTWT) and was endorsed by both the World Council of Churches and the Vatican. It focuses mostly on human and social issues relating to host countries.

Similar codes have been devised by groups who are more concerned about the biophysical environ­ment. Three examples are listed as follows.

• 'Diving on coral reefs must always be restricted to controlled places.'

• 'Everything carried into a place should be carried out.'

• 'Take nothing but photographs; leave nothing but footprints.'

One World Travel, an Australian company, or­ganises tours based on these principles - see bro­chure extracts a and b in Figure 4.18 on page 106.

105

Т 0 U R I S M

A code of ethics for tourists

Developed at a Christian Conference

of Asia meeting of people

from host countries

1. Travel in a spirit of humility and with a genu­ine desire to learn more about the people of your host country.

2. Be sensitively aware of the feelings of other people, preventing what might be offensive behaviour on your part. This applies very much to photography.

3. Cultivate the habit of listening and observ­ing, rather than merely hearing and seeing.

4. Realise that often the people in the country you visit have time concepts and thought pat­terns different from your own; this does not make them inferior, only different.

5. Instead of looking for that 'beach paradise', discover the enrichment of seeing a differ­ent way of life through other eyes.

peo-

Acquaint yourself with local customs pie will be happy to help you.

► Aboriginal Australia (16 days)

This is a comprehensive study tour. Tour members will undertake a unique journey into Pitjontjatjara country to experience the Апапзи way of life and learn about traditional ways. Cross cultural workshops by the Institute for Aborisinal Development will be held in Alice Sprin3$ and will include the kinship system, discussions on a range of social and political issues, visits to nearby communities and bush tucker walks.

Dates: July 2nd. - 17th, 1994 Approximate cost: $2,200.00 - ex •Alice Springs Group size: 15

► Laos (16 days)

Join a small sroup privileged to visit a beautiful country just openins up to the outside world. Travel with us and meet warm and gentle people of Buddhist faith, many of whom are eager to make contact with foreigners. Visit a CAA development project in Van Vieng. Listen to Lao people talk about their turbulent history, shaped by its powerful neighbors, and their hopes for the future. Уои will admire Lao architecture, carvings, textiles, music and dance. And you will enjoy the

sublime landscapes of mountain ranges, the Mekong River, pristine forests and green rice fields.

Dates: Sept. 24th. - Oct. 9th, 1994 - to be confirmed Approximate cost: $3,100.00 Group size: 13

Instead of the Western practice of knowing all the answers, cultivate the habit of listen­ing.

Remember that you are only one of the thou­sands of tourists visiting the country - do not expect special privileges.

If you really want your experience to be a 'home away from home', it is foolish to waste your money on travelling.

10

When you are shopping, remember that the 'bargain' you obtained was only possible be­cause of the low wages paid to the maker.

11. Do not make promises to people in your host country unless you are sure you can carry them through.

12. Spend time reflecting on your daily experi­ences in an attempt to deepen your under­standing. It has been said that what enriches you may rob and violate others.

F igure 4.17 A sample code of ethics (The Australian Council of Churches and Australian Catholic Relief, Tourism and the Third World: Going the Extra Mile, 1993)

Figure 4.18 Two brochure extracts illustrating the responsible touring offered by One World Travel: a Aboriginal Australia: b Laos

Activity 11

a If we come to have better, more comfort able or new forms of travelling to remote regions, what might this mean for the regions' vulnerable environments?

b i What other hew technologies for aid­ing tourism might be invented?

ii Which other new technologies do you expect most tourists will be able to af­ford to use?

с i Using the column headings in Table 4.5 on page 107, list the attractive.new tourist activities that have sprung up over the past twenty years, for example bungie jumping, jet skiing, heli skiing and windsurfing.

ii Indicate whether the activities are cheap ('CO or expensive ('E').

d How has die tourism industry advertised and promoted the activities you cited in part c?

106

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

Table 4-5 New activities — cheap or expensive

(C/E)?

How would you respond? How would you justify this response?

For C/E	For thrill-	C/E New- C/E
c hildren	seekers	technology users

e Using a range of travel brochures and ad­vertisements to support your opinions, dis­cuss the statement, 'It does not matter where you go in the world; you can do the same things in similar environments.'

f i Where, in the world, might people go in order to express concern about and nurture the natural environment?

ii What types of action could they take?

g i In the world today, where are the main concentrations of people?

ii Where do most tourists go?

iii Which destinations are the most popular worldwide?

iv How might these destinations be in forty years' time if the population doubles or more?

v What impacts will the consequent increase in tourism have?

vi Do any solutions exist for this potential problem?

h Where might tourists be concentrated in the

future?

i You are likely to be one of the tourists fac­ing the issue of there being large concen­trations of people. What do you expect will happen, and what would you do?

j i Referring to Figure 4.17 on page 106, what things might tourists do differently if they followed these codes of behav­iour?

ii Why do host-country governments of­ten ignore some tourists' insensitive and unjust behaviour?

к i Refer to the code of ethical behaviour you prepared for part d of Activity 21 in Chapter 1 (page 26) and compare it with the one in Figure 4.17.

ii State which points you consider to be the most important in each list.

• Where might you stand on the issue of using stratospheric shuttles that could consume precious resources and damage the ozone layer but per­mit very quick travel from Australia to London, Tokyo or New York?

• Would you support keeping all 'tourists' at home in their living rooms and piping tourism experi­ences to them as holographic virtual reality-through fibre-optic cables?

If past experience is any guide, many of the new technologies and practices will have the potential to do environmental or social harm. As you consider the advantages and disadvantages of future tourism proposals, it will be important to make personal decisions about what you believe is in the best inter­ests of all the parties involved, as well as about the aspects of the biophysical or cultural environment involved. If you are to take a responsible stand on any tourism issue, you have to be able to justify your position by using reliable evidence and sound argu­ment.

Ecotourism

What prompts our interest in the issue?

World tourism rose rapidly during the 1980s, and tourism is now arguably the world's biggest industry. Public concern about the way we are using the en­vironment has also been increasing rapidly. The con­cern has extended to the tourism industry as places popular with visitors around the world have been subjected to increasing pressures.

A new category of tourism has evolved, known variously as ecotourism, nature tourism, adventure tourism, eco-travel and green tourism. Its aims are similar to those of cultural and heritage tourism, which should also be designed to have low impact. Because ecological and cultural elements are interrelated, ecotourism and cultural tourism often merge. The US Adventure Travel Society, one of the foremost organi­sations involved in ecotourism, estimates that the global market for ecotourism is worth as much as $13-5 billion annually. This factor's importance for Australia was recognised in November 1994, when the fourth 'World Congress on Adventure Travel and Ecotourism' was held in Hobart and attracted more than 600 delegates and media representatives from thirty-four countries.

107

Т О U R I S M

Ecotourism is the new form of tourism being promoted around the world in an attempt to

• diversify the tourism industry, and

• promote tourism ventures that are in harmony with the environment and place minimal demands on a region's natural resources and peoples. Based on ecological and environmental themes,

ecotourism stems from many people's desire to visit remote, isolated and scenic locations in a low-impact way - socially and ecologically sustainable tourism. The tourists wish to study, admire and enjoy the scen­ery and the native plants and animals as well as any cultural features that may be present - see the pho­tograph in Figure 4.19.

Ecotourism is nature dependent, as opposed to nature incidental, and it does not include activities in which the natural environ­ment is not the main focus. It involves active nature appreciation, education and interpretation, excludes nature-dependent activities such as the exploitative ones of hunting and fishing, and excludes adventure tourism such as mountain climbing. Activities that are damaging to the natural environment cannot be viewed as being ecotourism activities.

The number of low-impact tourism sites has grown, such as a developer's resort in the Virgin Is­lands, United States, which is built of recycled glass, tyres and ground-up construction by-products. The resort uses solar power and wind power, and guests are allocated a 'power budget' when they arrive.

Figure 4.19 Tourists pausing during their climb around the rim overlooking the natural beauty of Wilpena Pound, Flinders Ranges, South Australia

As part As part of its ecotourism promotion, Tasmania boasts it has the has the world's cleanest air, purest water, fastest growing growing Atlantic salmon, largest lavender field and oldest li oldest living thing - a 4000-year-old Huon pine. All ecotouri ecotourism ventures aim to avoid damage to and deteriora deterioretion of the environment and to preserve any cultural cultural heritage. This type of tourism has rapidly become become the fastest growing sector of most areas of tourism tourism and is expected to become one of the world's biggest biggest income generators. Travellers w^rho have pre­viously viosly experienced many types of 'touristy' or re­sort-type hol type hoidays are increasingly seeking authentic, natural and disti distinctive experiences. This trend and the move away p from package holidays towards more independent and indivi d individualistic 'do your own thing' holidays are response responsible for the new demand for ecotourism experien experiences. Because it has a huge diver­sity of ortandi outstanding natural wonders and unspoilt wilderness areas an areas and a unique cultural heritage, Aus­tralia is in an ideal po ideal position to become a world leader in this type of tourism. ourism.

ActivActivity 12

a State which of the following activities i to viii you would classify as ecotourism ac­tivities.

Activities

i Picnicking

ii White-water rafting

iii Birdwatching

iv Mountain-bike riding - see the photo­graph in Figure 4.20

v Swimming

vi Trekking vii Photography

viii Horse riding

b List all the activities that could be classified as ecotourism activities.

Figure 4.20 A group of cyclists setting out to enjoy the natural environment

Figure 4.20 A group of cyclists setting out to enjoy the natural environment

108

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

Figure 4.21 Two younger tourists visiting a temple in Skardu, northern Pakistan

What are the issues?

Can the Australian tourism industry adjust in order to become ecologically sustainable and culturally sensitive?

The term ecotourism evokes the idea of low environ­mental impact on remote and sensitive locations as well as that of having restricted numbers of tourists. Ecotourism, it is claimed, is different from other forms of tourism, because it is committed to promoting natural and cultural conservation, aims to inspire visi­tors through promoting appreciation of natural and cultural integrity, and attempts to avoid environmen­tal or cultural damage. Experts believe that only small-scale ventures can achieve low impact, therefore a limit is placed on the scale of any activity. This idea is not entirely new, though - many operators have been conducting environment-based tourist activities for some time.

Regardless of their type, if they are to survive, all tourism ventures should be ecologically sustainable and culturally sensitive. Tourism-related human activities should not challenge the ca­pacity of the earth's life-support systems. Because of the huge numbers of activities involved, all tourism - in Aus­tralia and the rest of the world - should move towards adop­tion of more sustainable prac­tices, for example energy conservation, waste mini­misation, avoidance of pollu­tion and use of environmentally sound and recyclable materials. Tourism should move away from the huge extravagances, the ex­cess waste and the pollution that are common today.

Tourism will move to­wards both economic and ecological sustainability if it adheres to the following four basic policies.

• Development in accord­ance with the wisest use of environmental

resources and services at a global, national, re­gional and local level

●Maintenance of a full range of recreational, edu­cational and cultural opportunities across genera­tions

●Maintenance of biodiversity and ecological sys­tems and processes

●Achievement of development in a way through which other sectors of the economy remain able to achieve economic sustainability

What is at these places, and why is it there?

In the future in Australia, placing the emphasis on ecotourism is likely to lead to the existence of the following characteristics.

• Tourism to and tourist developments in national parks

• Greater interest, expressed by both domestic tour­ists and overseas tourists, in the Australian natu­ral environment - wilderness experiences, wildlife expeditions, cultural tours of Aboriginal sites and so on

• Large prestige development projects, often located in remote and sensitive areas

For Australian tourism to become ecologically sustain­able and culturally sensitive, it will have to be focused on the four policies cited, on the lo­cations' carrying capacity and on the likely impacts of infra­structure and tourists.

Some ecotourism activities that tourists will possibly seek to undertake in Australia, during which the natural environment is the main focus

• Walking, hiking, trekking, viewing, photography, bird-watching, cruising, diving and cycling

• Active tourism that involves nature appreciation as well as activities such as kayaking, abseiling, skiing, gliding, hang gliding and white-water rafting

• Visiting people who con­tinue to practise aspects of their traditional cultures; this is cultural tourism - see the pho­tograph in Figure 4.21

109

TOURISM

a

b

c

Activity 13

i Using some research materials, add crosses to a photocopy of Table 4.6, as shown in the table, for the places in which ecotourism activities could be undertaken.

ii Add some space at the bottom of the table for you to write more places in which ecotourism activities would be appropriate.

i Use the last column in the table to clas­sify all the places, for example 'Moun­tain', 'Coastal' or 'Gorge'.

ii Using a different-colour pen for each classification, and an outline map of Australia, draw in the boundaries of each place and name it.

Choose a place in Australia or another coun­try that has some ecotourism appeal and answer questions i to vii as follows.

Questions

ii

iii

i What are the place's special features? What types of tourist might it attract How could it be developed for ecotourism, and what has to be pro­tected?

v

iv

How might a sustainable balance be achieved between the tourists' needs and the requirements of the environ­ment and the local culture?

How might the development be man­aged?

VI

What type of complex could be planned that would incorporate sensi­tivity towards the environment and culture?

vii

What activities could be undertaken that would cause minimal damage to the environment and culture but educate and inform the tourist?

Table 4.6 Ecotourism activities in Australia's states and territories

Place appropriate for ecotourism activities	New South Wales	Victoria	Queensland	South Australia	Western Australia	Tasmania	Northern Territory	Australian Capital Territory	Classi­fication
The Southern Alps	X
The Grampians {Gariwerd)		X
The Daintree Rainforest			X
The Flinders Ranges				X
The Hamersley gorges					X
The Franklin River						X
The Coburg Peninsula							X
Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve								X
The Lake Eyre Basin
The Katherine gorges
Cape Otway
The Stirling Ranges
The Great Barrier Reef
Warrumbungle National Park
Ginninderra Falls
The Simpson Desert
Wilson's Promontory
Flinders Island
The Bungle Bungles
Ben Boyd National Park
Cradle Mountain-Lake St Clair National Park
The Coorong
Aboriginal cultural sites

110

TOURISM AND

THE FUTURE

Where are many of the human activities and/or biophysical phenomena of these places located precisely?

Australia has a great variety of places that have ecotourism potential, and they exist in a wide range of climates, landscapes and ecosystems. Although some are densely populated, most are remote, are rarely visited and have few permanent residents. Their

traits of isolation and wilderness are increasingly being sought by urban dwellers from all over the world. Vast tracts of the regions are already deemed national parks, conservation parks. World Heritage sites, Abo­riginal lands, marine parks and nature reserves. The regions' variety is more than matched by the types of ecotourism activity undertaken - see the map in Fig­ure 4.22 on page 113 and Table 4.7 below and on page 112.

T able 4.7 Australia's regions and their ecotourism characteristics

Region

Features

Ecotourism characteristics

Tropical and subtropical Extent Cooktown in Queensland to Coffs Harbour on New South Wales north coast • 5.2 per cent of Australia's area and 14.4 per cent of its population • Warm low-latitude climate • Coastal plains, rivers, islands and ancient volcanic features • Remnants only of rainforests and subtropical forests

South-eastern coast

Extent Coffs Harbour southwards to Mount Gambier in South Australia • Australia's largest cities • 1.6 per cent of Australia's area and 51.1 per cent of its population • Coastal plains, their climates moderated by their location • A range of open and closed forests dependent on rainfall; some temperate rainforest and expanses of open sclerophyll woodland

Australian alps and eastern highlands

Extent From south-eastern Victoria to the Queensland-New South Wales border - a 150 kilometre-wide belt of mountains • 3.9 per cent of Australia's area and 4.8 per cent of its population (816,000) • High plateaus and hills dissected by rivers and streams • Cold to cool climate and extensive areas of snow in winter; the higher rainfall areas of Australia • Wet-sclerophyll open forests dominate; above the tree line at about 1800 metres, alpine plants dominate

South-east interior

Extent West of the Australian alps and eastern highlands; the large area extends from near the South Australia-New South Wales border in a crescent up to Toowoomba in Queensland

• 4.6 per cent of Australia's area and 7.9 per cent of its population • Lowlands, river flats and hills dissected by many rivers flowing westwards into the Murray-Darling Basin

• Warm to hot in summer and cool to cold in winter • Extensively cleared for agriculture

• Woodland to grassland, depending on moisture available • Redgum forests of the river floodplains along the Murray and Murrumbidgee rivers

• Popular with tourists between June and September due to lower rainfall • Three World Heritage areas - the Daintree Rainforest - Wet Tropics, the Great Barrier Reef and Fraser Island - and many national parks • Scuba diving, snorkelling, scientific study, viewing unique species of plants and wildlife • Spectacular landforms and scenic views: islands, reefs, caves, mountains, waterfalls, forests and volcanic features

• National parks that have open and closed forest communities • Walking, trekking, cruising, driving and cycling in mountain, forest and lake areas • Spectacular coastal scenery and beaches - along the Great Ocean Road, for example • Many animals and wildlife habitats

• Government-run and government-supported interpretive centres for educating the public on the region's unique features

• National parks in north-eastern New South Wales form part of a World Heritage site • Rare plants, animals, caves, waterfalls, ravines and canyons • Bushwaiking, including alpine walks, is popular; spring and summer wildflowers are common; cross-country skiing is undertaken during winter • Sparsely settled and isolated sections due to steep relief

• Despite extensive settlement, the national parks have plants and animals that have adapted to the drier conditions • In mallee areas, it is possible to undertake guided and educational tours • Rivers and floodplains provide wetland habitats and scenic attractions

Table 4.7 continues.

111

Т 0 U R I S M

T able 4.7 (continued)

Region

Features

Ecotourism characteristics

Tasmania Extent. Tasmania • 0.9 per cent of Australia's

area and 2.9 per cent of its population • Much of the state is rugged and highland, therefore much of the natural environment has been retained • In the western section the rainfall is high, and U-shaped valleys, lakes, alpine meadows and wild rivers dissect mountains • Temperatures lower than those of the mainland; more than 2000 millimetres of rain falls on almost half the west coast • Temperate rainforest, wet-sclerophyll forest and dry-sclerophyll forest are dominant

Mediterranean Extent South-western Western Australia and

southern South Australia • 3.1 per cent of Australia's area and 16.1 per cent of its population • Winter rainfall and summer drought or dry conditions • Generally low relief; gulfs in South Australia • Mostly cleared of eucalypt woodlands; karri and jarrah forests in the higher rainfall areas of south-western Western Australia

Desert and semi-desert Extent Most of western, central and inland

Australia • 53.4 per cent of Australia's area and 1.8 per cent of its population (306,000)

• Rainfall of less than 250 millimetres per year

• High daytime temperatures in winter and temperature extremes in summer • Nights are cold due to lack of cloud cover • Mostly lowlands and dry salt-lake basins • Plants are minimal and drought loving

• Much to offer the ecotourist • A World Heritage area: the south-western national parks • Bushwalking on many trails and tracks is popular; isolated locations that have unique plants and wildlife • Cycling is possible, and river cruises along the Gordon River provide access to the isolated inland sections • Spectacular coastal scenery offers many opportunities for study and viewing

• Mangrove areas near Adelaide, and freshwater lakes of the Coorong • Aboriginal heritage sites offer education programs • Weathered ancient granite rocks on the Eyre Peninsula and parts of the coast • Unique wildlife research and habitats on Kangaroo Island - animals include echidnas and sea lions; activities include whale watching • Forest and woodland walking trails - the Heysen Trail in South Australia and the karri and jarrah forests in Western Australia • The Warrawong sanctuary in South Australia provides a unique ecotourism location

• Three World Heritage areas - Uluru, Shark Bay and Willandra Lakes; other national parks that fascinate the ecotourist • Other locations include the Nullarbor Plain and the McDonnell, Flinders, Gammon, Hamersley and Musgrave ranges • Sandy and gibber deserts stretch across the centre and are reached by four-wheel-drive vehicle or air • Aboriginal lands make up a large proportion of the areas, as do large pastoral properties

Tropical savanna Extent. Australia's second-largest ecosystem,

covering most of the north • 27.3 per cent of Australia's area and 0.3 per cent of its population (50,000) • Its proximity to the equator means summer temperatures remain in the 30-degrees-Celsius range • From October to April, warm unstable equatorial air results in high rainfall - the 'wet' season • Monsoon forest, woodland and grassland dominate; five months of 'dry' limits tree growth

• Limited occupation and few centres, so much of the area remains wilderness • Feral animals - camels, donkeys, goats, pigs and buffalo - have devastated some areas

• The Kimberleys in Western Australia have wild gorges, waterfalls, large rivers and many areas of Aboriginal art

• Trail walking and flying predominate in isolated and rarely visited areas • The Bungle Bungles, Kakadu National Park - a World Heritage area - and the Katherine gorges • Queensland has many Aboriginal

sites

(Source: Adapted from Joan Binnion, 'Ecotourism and the ecological regions of Australia', in Issues magazine, June 1993 issue)

112

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

Legend

Tropical savanna

Tropical and subtropical north coast

S outh-eastern coast

A ustralian alps and eastern and Tasmanian highlands

S outh-east interior Desert

M editerranean Semi-desert

Who uses these places?

The places are visited by both domestic and overseas tourists, and the overseas ones come particularly from Europe, New Zealand, Asia and North America. The overseas visitors travel to Australia because of its geographic proximity, its cultural links, its unique attractions and/or their relative wealth.

Australian Tourism Commission research has re­vealed that our magnificent, unique scenic areas are very attractive to tourists.

What did the overseas tourists nominate as attractions?

• German and Italian tourists nominated the wish to experience unspoilt scenery as a major moti­vation in deciding to visit Australia.

• Seventy-eight per cent of Japanese visitors stated that being close to nature was important or ex­tremely important in their decision making.

• In a 1991 United States study, 98 per cent of the survey respondents thought that having beautiful scenery was a vital attraction, and 95 per cent of them believed that Australia has these character­istics.

Figure 4.22 The eight regions of Australia, based on broad biophysical characteristics

Activity 14

a Refer to Figure 4.22 and Table 4.7. Divide your class into eight groups and have each group choose one of the ecotourism-appropriate regions listed in Table 4.7. Each group is to decide on an ecotourism-activity-related issue that may arise in its chosen region. Use the issues questions on page 22 of Chapter 1 in order to investigate the issues. Research using atlases and library books will also be required.

b Each group is to prepare a class report sug­gesting ways of resolving potential conflict.

с Each group is to display its proposal and be prepared to answer questions. The dis­play should include maps, tables, diagrams and pictures, which may be clipped from tourist brochures, newspapers and maga­zines.

●Having tourism in natural areas can provide peo­ple with an incentive to conserve them and to protect the integrity of indigenous cultures. .The tourism industry can play an active role in help­ing to preserve areas of natural and cultural value. It should be at the forefront of efforts to secure protection and recognition of the areas as national parks and World Heritage areas.

● Ecotourism is one area of economic activity in which Australia has an advantage over other coun­tries: although places such as Africa, parts of Asia and South America have as many wonderful natural attractions as Australia, their appeal is restricted by the existence of civil strife, security problems, poor health or environmental hazards. Australia and countries such as New Zealand and Canada are well poised to take advantage of this fact, because they can offer ecotourists clean, healthy, environmentally safe and secure envi­ronments - see the photograph in Figure 4.23 on page 114. Canada, however, has the disadvan­tage of cold weather - most of the world's tour­ists seek warm climates.

●The geographic proximity of New Zealand to Australia could be an advantage in marketing

113

Figure 4.23 Specially designed buses ferrying ecotourists on to the Athabasca Glacier, Canada

ecotours to tourists from the other side of the world.

• More sensitivity towards and concern for envi­ronments will result from the placing of a greater emphasis on small-scale and low-volume ecotourism, and the economic benefits of tour­ism may still ensue. Ecotourism, as a form of tourism, contrasts with the negative social and environmental effects of large-scale resort devel­opments that attract large numbers of tourists.

• Ecotourism can be compatible with the needs of domestic tourists, most of whom prefer the low-to medium-cost low-key accommodation they can afford.

• Having a low-key infrastructure means that less capital is outlaid and that more opportunities are therefore provided for investors outside urban areas. Some tourism operators located in a rural area depressed by the 'rural crisis' may thereby be helped, through the provision and creation of local employment.

The impacts of ecotourism

Despite its claimed advantages, the potential of ecotourism to have many social, environmental and economic impacts remains an issue. For some opera­tors, ecotourism is simply a gimmick - they wish to 'jump on the tourist bandwagon'.

• For the year 2000, the huge influx of tourists into Australia is predicted to be more than 6.5 mil­lion. The tourists will continue to require trans­port to their destination, thereby putting more and more stress on the transport networks and increasing pollution. Other infrastructure elements, public utilities and resources will be similarly affected.

• All tourist activity has the potential to damage the environment, and the estimated increased numbers of activities will inevitably place more pressure on the newly promoted sensitive areas.

114

• In order to economically sustain low-volume ecotourism, the venture operators have to charge more for the unique natural or cultural experi­ence. Placing more emphasis on small-scale and low-volume ecotourism may not result in more sensitivity towards and concern for environments and may mean that tourism becomes placed out of the price range of most tourists.

• A land boom in areas adjoining national parks has already occurred, and land that has high conser­vation value has often been subdivided. Unscru­pulous developers could severely damage the areas they are promoting by pushing to have develop­mental projects located near parks they wish to use. North Queensland's Daintree Rainforest area, for example, seems to have been secured from the excesses of logging but may become signifi­cantly threatened by tourist activity.

A vision for Australian tourism in the early-twenty-fir§t century

In the list in Figure 4.24 on page 115 headed 'Happy twenty-first!', the Director of the Australian Tourism Commission, writing on behalf of the tourism indus­try, optimistically describes what Australian tourism will be like at the beginning of the twenty-first cen­tury - if ecotourism comes to dominate during the final decade of the twentieth century.

All tourism bodies are becoming eager to pro­mote this 'caring' form of tourism. Australia's states and territories, for example, all have scenic marvels, and their governments are enthusiastically promoting ecotourism in their unique environments by estab­lishing funds and incentives in order for tourism operators to develop the market. Within this 'caring vision', though, many tours and tourist ventures lo­cated in remote and isolated areas, irrespective of the quality of their care for the environment and its in­habitants, are unfortunately also legitimised.

Ecotourism in Australia has undoubtedly led to a greater awareness of the need to educate tourists and to encourage tourism operators to provide environ­ment-sensitive and people-sensitive activities and ventures.

The search for sustainable tourism in Africa

Tourism is close to becoming, if it has not already become, many African countries' largest export-revenue earner. As is the case in Australia, many

TOURISM AND THE FUTURE

Happy twenty-first!

• Australia is positioned as the world's number-one nature destination, and substan­ tial government funds are allocated to the declaration and management of a world-class system of national parks and reserves.

• Tourist facilities are located outside national parks and similarly designated areas, pref- erably within the boundaries of existing towns.

• An enlightened tourist industry devotes a share of its profits to conservation projects and organisations.

• Tours provide high-quality information. And interpretation, thereby enhancing public appreciation and support.

• Ali elements of the tourist industry are pledged to pursue the highest ethical standards and environmental practices in order to maintain sustainable tourism.

• No new five-star highrise resorts, golf courses or marinas have been built for years. All existing facilities have been redesigned in order that their environmental standards be upgraded.

• As-needed low- to middle-cost, infrastructure has-expanded and is characterised by world-class standards of planning, design and. operation.

• Local communities, are strongly involved in determining the extent of developments’ compatibility with their needs. Friendly low- cals ensure that authentic, memorable contact is made with visitors.

• Aboriginal people participate in cultural tours, and their level of involvement is determined by their own interests and needs. .

• Australia is selective about and responsive to the needs of producing, an unobtrusive style of tourism.

• Australia aims for a sustainable level of visiting that returns true benefits to the nation.

— Penny Figgis

- Director

Australian Tourism Commission

1988-93

Figure 4.24 Will Australian tourism come to be like this?

people who are involved in Africa's tourism industry have been seeking to strike a balance between tour­ism development and sustainability, be it in biophysi­cal environments, societies or cultures. The term ecotourism is used extensively, but terms such as sustainable tourism are equally as popular.

Some critics of the directions being taken by Africa's tourism industry declare that any 'develop­ment through tourism', be it based on ecotourism prin­ciples or not, is a contradiction in terms. They suggest that even under the best ecotourism-type circum­stances, tourists do not gain enough insight into the unspoilt aspects of the biophysical and cultural envi­ronments they come to see. This questioning attitude towards tourism - ecotourism included - stems from the fact that many tourists visiting Africa wish to 'get away from it all', to experience the 'unique' and to see unspoilt things.

Apart from wishing to see the many outstanding features of the biophysical environment, many tour­ists wish to visit and begin to understand the true nature of the local peoples and their cultures. In an attempt to avoid creating artificially preserved primi­tive-human zoos, ecotourism operators are seeking to bring together two groups of people, in a non­invasive way, thereby 'building a bridge' between two very different cultures. Although foreigners - particu­larly Westerners - who experience the cultures often come away with a greater respect for that group of African people, they usually also wish to have the conveniences, comfort and familiar aspects of mod­ern, urban, Western-style living. The result is that the tourists may spoil and bring longlasting change to the unique things they come to see.

This enormous contradiction is inherent in all tourism. Ecotourism ventures in many African places function effectively because it is believed that they can truly bring not only economic but human devel­opment, that biophysical environments can be sus­tained, and that true benefits can ensue for both hosts and visitors.

Some of the localities that attract ecotourists to Africa are examined as follows.

Botswana

The Okavango River, which empties into a desert, has created a delta that has attracted ecotourists for many years — see the two maps in Figure 4.25 and the photograph in Figure 4.26 on page 116. The number of people travelling to the locality has in­creased because of the political changes in the neigh­bouring Republic of South Africa. Many international tourists are travelling to South Africa for the first time and including Botswana in their journey.

115

1 0 U R I S M

Figure 4.25 Botswana, showing the location of the Okavango Delta; inset: Botswana's location in Africa

Figure 4.26 Some Ba Yei, ba Tawana and ova Herero people have found employment in the Okavango Delta ecotourist camps.

An Australian journalist's view of this amazing region is given in the newspaper article in Figure 4.27 on page 117 entided African oasis'.

Zimbabwe

Hwange National Park

Zimbabwe is a fascinating and exciting destination for ecotourists. Many do not leave the country before visiting Hwange National Park - see the two maps in Figure 4.29 on page 117 and the photograph in Fig­ure 2.6 on page 35. There they undertake a safari to enable them to see the wonderful array of wildlife. Massive elephant herds - the total elephant population is 70,000 and includes the magnificent

Presidential Herd - as well as buffalo and giraffe herds can be seen; this is partly due to the fact that park rangers protect the animals from poachers.

Lake Kariba

This is another outstanding wildlife locality - see Figure 4.29. The sweeping shores of the lake, which was created during the late 1950s when the huge River Zambezi was dammed, were the setting (at that time) for Operation Noah, the world's biggest animal-rescue operation. (It was also the location for the displacement and separation of large numbers of local people living in Zambia and Zimbabwe.) The rescued animals' descendants now live at the lake's edge and provide one of the best ecotourism sights in the world.