- •Синтаксические особенности английского языка
- •Clauses relative clauses
- •Who, That, or Which?
- •Exercises
- •1. Join each pair of sentences together to make one sentence with a relative clause, using who or which:
- •2. Point out the relative clause and indicate whether it is a subject or object relative clause:
- •4. Express each pair of sentences as one with a contact clause. Think carefully about the word order:
- •5. Use who, that, which, or nothing to complete these sentences:
- •6. Express these pairs of sentences as one, using which:
- •7. Make the second sentence into a descriptive clause and put it into the correct place:
- •8. Use the sentences in the box to make descriptive clauses. Insert an appropriate clause into each of the sentences:
- •9. Use a relative pronoun in the following sentences. In which sentences is it possible to omit the relative pronoun?
- •10. Fill in the blanks with a relative pronoun. Put ø if you think no pronoun is necessary. Where can you use that?
- •11. Match each situation with one of the sentences that follow.
- •12. Complete the sentences using either descriptive or limiting relative clauses:
- •Revision
- •13. Complete the sentences. Choose the most suitable ending from the box and make it into a relative clause:
- •14. Write the information in brackets as a relative clause in an appropriate place in the sentence.
- •Relative clauses with prepositions
- •Exercises
- •1. Make up sentences using a relative clause with a preposition at the end.
- •2. Match the phrases and write the definitions.
- •Other relative claues
- •Exercises
- •2. Zedco Chief Executive Barry Douglas is telling a group of managers how to run a business successfully. He emphasises the underlined words with what.
- •3. Read the situations and complete the sentences using where.
- •Revision
- •4. Complete each sentence using who, whom, whose, why, when or where.
- •5. Fill in the blanks with who, which, whose or where.
- •6. Peter is going to the United States next year. Complete what he says about his visit using whose, who/whom, where and when.
- •7. Complete the sentences with the correct or most appropriate relative pronoun; use ø to indicate contact clause:
- •8. Study the table above and finish the following sentences without changing the meaning of the sentences printed before them.
- •9. Join each idea in a with the most suitable idea in b. Use which referring to the whole clause.
- •10. For each of the sentences below write a new sentence as similar as possible in meaning to the original sentence but using the word given. The word must not be altered in any way.
- •11. Translate the sentences into Russian.
- •Adverbial clauses time clauses
- •Exercises
- •1. Review the material about time clauses. Translate the time conjunctions and examples provided into Russian.
- •3. Choose the appropriate time phrase and put the verbs into the correct tense.
- •4. Fill in: by the time, until or by.
- •5. Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
- •6. Finish the following sentences in such a way that they mean exactly the same as the sentences printed before them.
- •7. Prepare 10 sentences for translation from Russian into English in which time clauses would be introduced by the following time conjunctions and expressions:
- •Conditional clauses
- •Exercises
- •1. Choose the correct conjunction:
- •2. Put the verb in brackets into the correct tense.
- •3. Complete the sentences:
- •Clauses of purpose
- •Exercises
- •1. Choose the correct word.
- •2. Look at the examples, then rewrite the sentences in as many ways as possible to express purpose.
- •3. Join the sentences using the purpose words given.
- •4. Join the following sentences using so that, in case, for fear, prevent or avoid.
- •5. Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
- •6. Study the table above and finish the following sentences without changing the meaning of the sentences printed before them.
- •Clauses of result
- •Exercises
- •1. Fill in so, such or such a/an.
- •2. Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
- •3. Study the table above and finish the following sentences without changing the meaning of the sentences printed before them.
- •Clauses of reason
- •Exercises
- •1. Rewrite the sentences using the words in brackets.
- •2. Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
- •3. Study the table above and finish the following sentences without changing the meaning of the sentences printed before them.
- •Clauses of concession
- •Exercises
- •1. Choose the correct item. Translate the sentences into Russian.
- •2. Look at the example, then rewrite the sentences in as many ways as possible.
- •3. Rephrase the sentences using the words in brackets, as in the example.
- •4. Complete the sentences.
- •5. Rephrase the sentences using the words in bold.
- •6. Study the table above and finish the following sentences without changing the meaning of the sentences printed before them.
- •Clauses of manner
- •Exercises
- •1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.
- •2. Rephrase the following sentences using the words in bold.
- •3. Revision. For each of the sentences below write a new sentence as similar as possible in meaning to the original sentences but using the word given. The word must not be altered in any way.
- •Linking words
- •Exercises
- •1. Read the sentences and choose the correct linking word / phrase. Translate the sentences into Russian.
- •2. Complete this letter to a local newspaper, choosing the correct linker.
- •3. Choose the correct word / phrase.
- •4. Choose the correct answer.
- •5. Join the sentences using the word(s) in brackets. Translate the resulting sentences into Russian.
- •6. Join the sentences using a suitable word or phrase from the list. Translate the resulting sentences into Russian.
- •7. Join the sentences using the correct word(s) in brackets. Translate the resulting sentences into Russian.
- •8. Fill in the correct word / phrase from the lists.
- •9. Replace the words in bold with appropriate synonyms from the list.
- •10. Insert the necessary linker and say what it means.
- •Structures emphasis
- •Cleft sentences
- •Other types of emphasis
- •Fronting
- •Exercises
- •2. Rewrite the sentences using emphatic constructions, starting with the words given.
- •3. Read the information in the box and complete the replies, using a cleft sentence.
- •4. Rewrite the sentences putting emphasis on the highlighted word. (Use wh- clefts where necessary)
- •5. For each of the sentences below, write a new sentence as similar as possible in meaning to the original sentence, but using the words in brackets.
- •6. Make these sentences more emphatic by ‘fronting’ part of them. Don’t use any additional words.
- •8. Translate using emphatic constructions.
- •Inversion
- •Exercises
- •1. Rewrite the sentences using the words/phrases given.
- •2. Fill in the blanks with a suitable word or phrase.
- •3. Fill in the gaps as in the example.
- •4. Rewrite the sentences, beginning with the words in bold.
- •5. Rewrite the sentences using inversion where possible.
- •6. Complete each sentence with 2-5 words, including the word in brackets.
- •7. Translate the following sentences into English.
- •Exercises
- •1. Complete these sentences with a verb in an appropriate form, using ‘it’ if necessary.
- •2. Alan had to go to hospital for an operation. What did the doctor say? Use the information in the two sentences and make a new sentence with the help of …it as… and the verb in brackets.
- •3. Use ‘it’ as an ‘empty’ object where necessary.
- •Contents
- •Literature
Linking words
There are several principles and conventions which we follow in discourse (text and conversation).
We use various words and phrases (usually at the beginning of a sentence/ a clause) to express a relationship between what we are about to say and what we have just said:
Types |
Linkers |
Discourse examples |
Positive addition (giving extra information) |
Furthermore, … Further, … In addition, … On top of this, … What’s more, … Moreover, … Besides, … Not to mention the fact that … |
You can save yourself a full five per cent of interest with our new credit plan. Furthermore, we are offering no repayments for a year to customers who sign up before the end of the month. |
Negative addition |
Neither…nor …; Nor…; Neither … |
Barry doesn’t know how to drive. Nor does Kevin. |
Cause/ reason (introducing the result of previous information) |
Consequently, … As a consequence, … It follows from this, … For this reason, … As a result, … So, … Therefore, … As … Because of (this) … On the grounds that… Since … Due to… / Owing to … In view of … Now that … For… Thus … |
Your repayment are now three months in arrears. Consequently, we have no option but to withdraw credit facilities immediately.
She decided to order a salad now that she started her diet.
He was the only child of a rich banker and, as a consequence, he was very spoilt. |
Contrast/ Concession/ Contradiction (introducing information which contrasts with what has been mentioned previously) |
However, … All the same, … At the same time, … On the other hand, … In contrast… But … Yet…/ And yet… Whereas … While … Even though … Nevertheless, … Nonetheless, … Despite this, … Even so, … Still…/ (and) still … Regardless of… Admittedly, Alternatively, … On the contrary, … |
Riding a bicycle may not be as comfortable as driving a car; however, it is much more environmentally friendly.
Your counsel has made a convincing case in mitigation, Mr. Belgrave. Nevertheless, we feel that in a case of this gravity the only appropriate option is a custodial sentence.
You could tell her the bad news; on the other hand/ alternatively, you could let her find out herself. |
Similarity |
Similarly, … In the same way, … Likewise, … Equally, … |
A glass of milk before you go to bed may help you sleep. Similarly, a hot bath could do the trick. |
Emphasis |
Besides, … Not only this but…also … as well as… … as well. In fact, … As a matter of fact, … To tell you the truth,… Actually, … Indeed, … Let alone … …in particular… …, especially, … |
I don’t think she fits this job. In fact, she is far too young.
All the performers were good, but Pavarotti, in particular, was magnificent. |
Exemplification |
For example, … For instance, … Particularly, … |
Yes, I do think Henry is rude. For example, he shouts at waiters. |
Clarification |
That is to say, … Specifically, … In other words, … To put it another way, I mean … Or rather … |
She’s angry. Specifically, she’s angry at you.
Jessica isn’t the most popular person around here. In other words, no one likes her. |
Temporal linkers (expressing a relationship of time or sequence with the previous information) |
Beginning: Initially, … First(ly), … At first … First of all, … To start/to begin with, Continuing: Secondly, … After this/that… Then… Afterwards, … Next, … Before this, … Concluding: Finally, … At last … Eventually, … In the end, … Lastly, … Last but not least, … |
First of all, I’d like to thank my mother… Then, I must thank everyone involved in making this wonderful film.
The troops trudged for weeks through the snowy wastes. Finally, as they were nearing the point of exhaustion, they saw the faint lights of the city on the horizon. |
Summarizing |
In conclusion, … In summary, … To sum up, … As I have said, … As (it) was previously stated, … On the whole, … All in all, … Altogether, … In short, … To put it briefly, … Ultimately, … |
To sum up, the government must spend more money on public service. |
2. Other linking words and phrases:
Dismissing something |
Anyway, … |
I’m not sure a thank-you letter is rally necessary. Anyway, I can’t be bothered to write one. |
Picking up a topic |
Talking of … Speaking of… |
“I like Natalie. I went on holiday with her.” “Talking of holidays, what are your plans for this year?” |
Supporting a statement |
After all, |
We don’t need to drive to the club, do we? After all, it’s only about 200 metres from here. |
Changing the subject |
By the way, … |
“It’s a lovely day, isn’t it?” “Yes, beautiful. By the way, have you seen Melanie?” |