1. Punctuation marks

Aim: to divide sentences into stylistic units and text into sentences, also point out elements, which are prominent emotionally.

! – show specific ironic attitude

? – rhetorical question, which is the statement

- – mark emotional pauses, which may indicate such feelings as embarrassment, uncertainty, narrowness, hesitation.

. , - often used to indicate detachment.

2. Typographic techniques:

1. Italics

2. Capitalization

3. Spacing

4. Hyphenation

5. Multiplication

6. Bold type

Italics - to single out proverbs, quotations, foreign words, allusion, with the purpose of logical and emotive emphasis.

Capitalization – pronounced with the great emphasis.

Hyphenation – suggest the rhymed or clipped manner in which it is pronounced.

3. Graphon

Graphon – intentional violation (нарушение) of the graphical shape of a word used to reflect the authentic pronunciation to show the individual and social peculiarities of the speaker, the atmosphere of the communication.

Graphon indicates irregularities of pronunciation and supplies information about the speaker’s origin, social and educational background, physical and emotional condition.

E.g. Gotta - got to

Mighta – might to

3. Синтаксические средства повышения выразительности речи.

Classification:

Group 1.Patterns of syntactical arrangement.

• Inversion

• Detachment

• Parallel constructions

• Chiasmus

• Repetition

• Enumeration

• Suspense

• Climax

• Antithesis

Group 2.Peculiar linkage.

• Asyndeton

• Polysyndeton

• Gap-sentence link

Group 3.Colloqual constructions.

• Ellipsis

• Aposiopesis

• Question-in-the-narrative

• Represented speech

Group 4.Stylistic use of structural meaning.

• Rhetorical question

• Litotes

Inversion – is the placing of a sentence element out of its normal position either to gain emphasis and variety or to secure a poetic effect.

Types of inversion:

• complete (predicate or predicative is displaced)

• partial (the initial position is occupied by secondary member of sentence)

Works as a displacement (main or secondary members of the sentence).

Functions:

• next topic of conversation

• great emphasis

• emotional colouring

• rhythm

Detachment (=shifting) – a secondary member of the sentence (an attribute or adverbial modifier) is placed away from the word it refers to and gain some kind of syntactical independence and a greater degree of significance. Its variant is parenthesis (explanatory remark).

Works as a displacement.

Functions:

• to reproduce 2 parallel ideas or 2 different plains of narration

• to make a sentence more noticeable and more emphatic

• to intensify an emotional thought by making a sentence or part interrogative or exclamatory

• to avoid monotonous repetition or similar constructions

• to give colloquial character to the author’s narration

Parallel constructions – are cases of repetition of identical or similar syntactical constructions. Two types: complete and partial.

Parallels can be created through a variety of syntactical similarities:

• parallel verbs and adverbs

• parallel nouns and their modifiers

• parallel prepositional phrases

Works as a repetition (syntactical patterns).

Functions:

• to make the writing clear and balanced

• to create connection between elements

• to intensify this or that fact

• to create rhythm

• to intensify similarities or differences between objects

Chiasmus – is based on the repetition of syntactical patterns, but it has a reversed order in one of the two utterances. Subject + predicate + object – Object + predicate + subject.

Works as an inversion.

Functions:

• to break the monotony of parallel constructions

• to give emphasis to the second part

Repetiton.Works as a recurrence. Types of repetition:

• ordinary repetition (it offers no fixed place for the repeated unit)

• anaphora (repetition of a sequence of words at the beginning of the neighbouring clauses)

• epiphora (…a, …a, …a)

• framing (a…a, b...b)

• anadiplosis, or catch repetition (…a, a…)

• chain repetition (…a, a…b, b…c, c…d)

• root repetition

Function: to focus the reader’s attention on a certain fact.

Represented speech reproduces the spoken words or thoughts of a character almost directly but still within the author’s speech. It may be marked by some grammar features:

• the change of the tense form from Present to Past

• the change of the pronoun from the 1^st and 2^nd person to 3^rd

• a peculiar choice of vocabulary (a change for colloquial words and expressions)

• the syntactical structure of the utterance doesn’t change

Two types:

1. Uttered repr. speech (произнесенная, внешняя, наружная)

2. Unuttered repr. speech (not spoken aloud) (it is aimed at expressing feelings and emotions of the character. It abounds in exclamatory words, elliptical and unfinished sentences)

Functions:

• to allow the writer in a condensed and objective manner to lead the reader into the inner working of human mind

• to render the character’s words which are not uttered aloud

• to reveal character’s psychology or temporary mental state

Enumeration – a SD by which separate things, properties, actions are brought together, forming a chain of grammatically and semantically homogeneous parts of the utterance.

Works as a listing.

Function: to emphasize a certain aspect and to focus the reader’s attention on this passage.

Susp’ense – consists in arranging the matter of communication in such a way that unimportant details are put at the beginning, and the main idea is withheld until the end of the utterance.

Works as details between subject and predicate.

Function: to hold the reader’s attention and to keep up his interest.

Climax – such an arrangement of sentences in which each preceding element (component) is considered less important, and the last one is emotionally stronger or logically more important.

Types:

1. Emotional – is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning.

2. Logical – is based on the relative importance of the elements looked at from the point of view of concepts embodied in them.

3. Quantitative – is an increase or decrease in the size or volume of the corresponding concepts.

Works as gradation.

Functions:

• to show the relative importance of things as seen by the author

• to impress upon the reader the significance of the things described by suggested comparison

• to depict phenomena dynamically

Antithesis – is putting contrasting ideas next to each other, usually with the same sentence structure. This opposition is relative and arises out of context.

Types:

• opposition of verbs

• opposition of adjectives

• opposition of nouns

Works as contrast, opposition.

Function: to reveal the author’s individual evaluation of objective reality, to intensify a contrast.

Gap-sentence link( attachment) – a peculiar way of connecting sentences which seem to be logically unconnected. Aim – to signal the introduction of represented speech, to indicate a subjunctive evaluation of the facts (marked by conjunctions and/but).

Polysyndeton is a deliberate repetition of connectives and conjunctions where they are not generally expected to be. It makes each member stand out distinctly, makes the idea more prominent and adds a rhythmical effect to the utterance.

Asyndeton, - connection between the parts of the sentence or between sentences without any formal signs. It becomes a SD when there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the literary language.

Functions : 1. accelerate the tempo of speech 2. To indicate energetic organized activities

3. to show a succession of immediately following actions.

Ellipsis is an omission of some parts of the sentence that are easy understood from the context or situation. Functions:

1. Spares The time

2. Reduces redundancy(чрезмерность, избыточность) of speech

3. Reveals such speaker's emotions as excitement , impatience, delight.

4. It accelerates the tempo of speech and shows authenticity of the dialogue.

A nominative sentence is a variant of one-member structure. It has neither subject nor predicate.(Morning. April. Problems.) They are used for dynamic description of events,to depict the time of the action, the place of the action, the attendant circumstances of the action, the participants of the action.

Aposiopesis(break in the narrative) – a figure of speech in which the speaker breaks in the middle of speaking as he is unwilling or unable to continue. It is indicated graphically by dash, dots, “but”. The purpose is to indicate emotions of the speaker, usually strong emotions such as threat or irritation, to show the character’s deliberate stop to hide its meaning.

Question-in the-narrative is a kind of question which is asked and answered by the same person, usually by the author.

Functions:

1. To establish a kind of contact between speakers and listeners.

2. To give the listener the time to absorb what has been said

3. To give an impression of complete confidence between the listener and speaker

4. To make people believe that the thoughts imposed on them are their own thoughts.

Litotes– a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation.Functions: to convey doubt of the speaker, to concern the exact characteristics of the object in question, to render subtle irony

Rhetorical question - a statement, a figure of speech which asks a question but no with the purpose of further discussion, but to assert or deny an answer implicitly (a question whose answer is obvious or implied).Functions: to attract the reader's attention to certain point of discourse, to pronounce judgments, to make the reader think over the question, to intensify one's feelings.

Passage as a text element.A paragraph is a group of sentences advancing the thought somewhat further. Each paragraph should leave you more informed at the end than you were at the beginning. here. The system of paragraphs indicates, the writer's organization of thoughts.. Rhetorically, the paragraph holds together statements that are closely related (relevant) and keeps apart statements that belong to different (irrelevant) parts of the subject. There is unity, organization, or structure, and movement, or an arrangement of thought leading to some significance, some meaning.

Unity (topic relevance)In composing a paragraph, a writer discusses only one topic or one aspect of a topic. This feature of a paragraph is known as unity or singleness of purpose. It can also be termed relevance by some scholars. Because an English paragraph concentrates on a single idea, all the facts, examples, and reasons used to develop that idea must be relevant.

Unity (coherence)

An English paragraph is coherent when its ideas are related to each other in orderly sequence. Each sentence in such a paragraph shouldnaturally grow out of each previous sentence in developing the central idea. Usually cohesion is supported by lexical links (also known as 'discourse markers', or 'markers of cohesion').

Each sentence in the paragraph grows from the preceding one, there is a kind of flow, or movement of thought in it, and this movement is supported formally by different lexical items.

Cohesive means may be divided into:

1. connectors such asbut, and, yet, however, therefore, moreover,

2. transitions, such as first, second, finally, in conclusion, similarly, in other words, accordingly, and then, again, at the same time, as a result, for example, for instance, on the other hand,

3. pronouns supporting reference, such as his, her, its, this, that, these, those, which carry the reader's mind back to the antecedent,

4. referential repetition of key words,

5. parallel structure, through which the reader is led back to ideas phrased in similar forms.

Rhetorically, cohesive means may perform various functions and used for concrete purpose.

Explanation: now, thus, for, in this case;

Emphasis: indeed, certainly, above all;

Qualification: but, however, yet, unless, except for,

Illustration: for example, for instance, thus-,

Consequence: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, hence, so, accordingly,

Summation: in conclusion, to sum up, all in all, finally, and so on.

Basic types of thought development

The development of thought in a paragraph may be arranged in three ways:

1. descending order — when the writer feels that one item is more important than the others and places it first;

2. ascending order —■ when the writer feels that one item is more ,

important than the others and places it last;

3. equal order, when the writer feels that all the items are equally important.

Both the initial position of the topic sentence, and its final location in a paragraph are rhetorically strong positions.

Discourse. Types of discourse. The term “discourse” comes from Latin “discursus” which denoted “conversation, speech”.

Discourse – a continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often constituting a coherent unit such as a sermon, argument, joke, or narrative.

Discourse types and their functions: argumentation (to persuade a reader to accept your point of view), description (stating individual features), narration (describing a situation in which conflict arises and is solved in some way).