- •Practice grammar l.G.Ander: Contents:
- •0 General grammar terms
- •1 The sentence
- •2 Nouns
- •3 Articles
- •4 Pronouns
- •5 Quantity
- •6 Adjectives
- •7 Adverbs
- •8 Prepositions, adverb particles and phrasal verbs
- •9 Verbs, verb tenses, imperatives
- •10 Be, Have, Do
- •11 Modal auxiliaries and related verbs
- •12 The passive and the causative
- •13 Questions, answers, negatives
- •14 Conditional sentences
- •15 Direct and indirect speech
- •16 The infinitive and the'-ing'form
- •0.4 The phrase and the clause
- •1 Sentence 1.1a Word order The meaning of an English sentence depends on the word order:
- •1 We put the subject before the verb and the object after the verb: The cook burnt the dinner.
- •1.3 The simple sentence: direct and indirect objects
- •1.7 The complex sentence: 'whose'; defining/non-defining clauses
- •1.8 The complex sentence: time, place, manner
- •1.10 The complex sentence: purpose, result and comparison
- •1.11 The complex sentence: present participle constructions
- •2.4D Write: Put in a, a lot of (use once only), some, or '-‘ junk or art?
- •2.5 Number (singular and plural) (1)
- •2.8 The genitive
- •3 Articles 3.1 The indefinite article: 'a/an' (1)
- •3.6 The zero article (2)
- •4 Pronouns 4.1 Personal pronouns
- •4.3 'It' and 'one/some/any/ none'
- •4.4 Possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns ('my/mine)
- •4.5 Reflexive pronouns ('myself)
- •4.6 Demonstrative adjectives/pronouns ('this', etc.) 'Some/any/no’ compounds ('someone’, none, nobody...)
- •5.2 General and specific references to quantity
- •5.3 Uses of 'some', 'any', 'no' and 'none'
- •5.4 'Much', 'many', 'a lot of, '(a) few', '(a) little', 'fewer', 'less'
- •5.6 'All (the)', '(a/the) whole', 'each’ and 'every'
- •5.7 'Another', '(the) other(s)', 'either', 'neither',' each (one of)'
- •6 Adjectives 6.1 Formation of adjectives
- •6.3 Adjectives that behave like nouns; '-ed/-ing' endings
- •6.4 Adjectives after 'be', 'seem', etc.; word order of adjectives
- •6.5 The comparison of adjectives
- •7 Adverbs 7.1 Adverbs of manner
- •7.2 Adverbs of time
- •7.3 Adverbial phrases of duration
- •7.4 Adverbs of frequency
- •7.8 Viewpoint adverbs, connecting adverbs and inversion
- •8 Prepositions, adverb particles and phrasal verbs 8.1 Prepositions, adverb particles and conjunctions
- •8.2 Prepositions of movement and position. Prepositions of time
- •8.3 Particular prepositions, particles: contrasts (1)
- •8.4 Particular prepositions, particles: contrasts (2)
- •8.5 Particular prepositions, particles: contrasts (3)
- •9 Verbs, verb tenses, imperatives
- •2 Spelling:
- •9.2 The simple present and present progressive tenses (2)
- •9.4A Irregular verbs with the same form in the present as in the past:
- •9.6 The simple past perfect and past perfect progressive tenses
- •3 Repeated actions:
- •4 Drawing conclusions:
- •9.8 The simple future, the future progressive, the future perfect
- •9.9 'Going to' and other ways of expressing the future
- •9.10 The imperative
- •10 Be, Have, Do
- •10.2 'Be'as a full verb (2)
- •10.4 Verbs related in meaning to 'be'
- •10.6 'Have' as a full verb meaning 'eat', 'enjoy', etc.
- •10.6 'Have' as a full verb meaning 'eat', 'enjoy', etc.
- •10.7 'Do'as a full verb
- •11 Modal auxiliaries and related verbs 11.1 The two uses of modal verbs
- •11.2 Uses of modals (etc.) to express ability and inability
- •11.3 Uses of modals (etc.) to express permission and prohibition/ban
- •11.4 Uses of modals (etc.) to express certainty and possibility
- •3 We use be and have been to answer questions with be:
- •11.6 Uses of modals for offers, requests and suggestions
- •11.7 Expressing wishes, etc.: 'I wish', 'if only', It's (high) time'
- •11.8 Expressing preferences: 'would rather' and 'would sooner'
- •11.9 'It's advisable ...'/'It's necessary ...'
- •2 We tend to prefer must:
- •11.10 'It isn't advisable ...'/'It isn't necessary ...'/it's forbidden ...'
- •11.11 Modals to express habit: 'used to', 'will' and 'would'
- •11.12 'Need' and 'dare' as modals and as full verbs
- •12 The passive and the causative 12.1 General information about form
- •12.2 Uses of the passive.
- •12.3 Form and use of the causative
- •4 We often use the causative with verbs that have to do with services: e.G. Build, clean, decorate, develop (a film), mend, photocopy, press, print, repair, service.
- •13 Questions, answers, negatives
- •13.1 Yes/No questions (General), negative statements, Yes/No answers
- •13.2 Alternative negative forms and negative questions
- •13.3 Tag questions and echo tags
- •13.4 Additions and responses
- •13.5 Question-word questions (1): 'Who(m)...?', 'What...?'
- •13.6 Question-word questions (2): 'When?', 'Where?', 'Which?', 'Whose?'
- •13.7 Question-word questions (3): 'Why?', 'How?'
- •13.8 Subject-questions: 'Who?', 'What?', 'Which?', 'Whose?'
- •13.9 Questions about alternatives. Emphatic questions with 'ever'
- •14 Conditional sentences
- •15 Direct and indirect speech
- •Inspector wiley investigates.
- •15.4D Context. Write: Put in the correct forms and tenses of the numbered verbs.
- •15.5 Uses of the to-infinitive in indirect speech 15.5a Reporting the imperative:
- •15.5C Uses of the to-infinitive in indirect speech
- •15.5D Context. Write: Put in the correct forms
- •15.6B Context. Write: Put in the missing words and punctuation marks.
- •16 The infinitive and the '-ing' form
- •16.2D Context. Write: Put in the correct forms of the infinitive or -ing.
- •16.3F Context. Write: Put in the correct forms of the verbs. How to get rid of rats
- •16.4D Context. Write: Supply the correct to-infinitive combinations. The brave old lady and the hopeless crook
- •16.5B Context. Write: Put in the correct forms. It takes your breath away!
- •16.6E Context. Write: Put in the correct forms. A flying start!
- •16.7F Context. Write: Put in the correct forms. A case of the shakes!
- •16.8D Context. Write: Put in the correct forms. Snap!
- •Key 1.1a The basic word order of an English sentence
- •1.4A The form of a compound sentence
- •1.7D Context
- •1.8B Adverbial clauses of time (future reference)
- •1.10А Adverbial clauses of purpose with 'so that' and 'in order that'
- •1.10E Context
- •1.11В The present participle in place of adverbial clauses
- •1.11C The present participle in place of relative clauses
- •2.1 A Noun endings: people who do things/people who come from places:
- •2.1 В Nouns formed from verbs, adjectives, other nouns
- •2.2C Compound nouns which tell us about materials and substances:
- •2.3A Countable and uncountable nouns compared
- •2.4B Nouns not normally countable in English: 'information'
- •2.6D Context:
- •2.7B Identifying masculine and feminine through pronouns: 'He/She is a student'
- •3.1 В The 'plural form' of 'a/an'
- •3.2A the use of 'a/an' when something is mentioned for the first time
- •3.4A 'The' for specifying
- •4.1 С Gender in relation to animals, things and countries
- •4.2B 'One' and 'ones' in place of countable nouns: 'Use this clean one'
- •4.5A Verbs commonly followed by reflexive pronouns: 1 enjoyed myself
- •5.3 Uses of 'some9, 'any', 'no' and 'none' 5.3a 'Some/any' or zero in relation to quantity
- •5.5D 'None of and 'neither of
- •5.7 'Another', '(the) other(s)', 'either', 'neither', 'each (one of)' 5.7a 'Another', 'other', 'others', 'the other', 'the others'
- •6.1 В Adjectives formed with prefixes: 'possible/impossible'
- •6.2B Adjectives that can change in meaning before a noun or after ‘be’
- •6.3 Adjectives that behave like nouns; '-ed/ing' endings
- •6.5 The comparison of adjectives 6.5a Common comparative and superlative forms: ‘cold - colder – coldest’
- •7.4C Adverbs of frequency at the beginning of a sentence
- •8.1 Prepositions, adverb particles and conjunctions 8.1 a Words we can use either as prepositions or as adverbs
- •8.2A 'At a point’, 'in an area' and 'on a surface'
- •8.5A Prepositions, panicles, etc. Often confused and misused
- •8.5B Context
- •9.2B Uses of the present progressive tense: 1 am working/he is working'
- •9.2C The simple present and the present . Progressive tenses in typical contexts
- •9.3A The past form and pronunciation of regular verbs
- •9.4A Irregular verbs with the same form in the present as in the past: 'put/put'
- •9.4B Uses of the past progressive tense: 'I was working'
- •9.4C The simple past and the past progressive in story-tell ing
- •9.5C The simple present perfect and the present perfect progressive compared:
- •9.6A Uses of the simple past perfect tense: 'I had worked'
- •9.6B Uses of the present and past perfect progressive: 'I have/had been working'
- •9.6C The simple past perfect and past perfect progressive compared
- •9.8A Simple future 1 will work' and progressive 'I will be working' compared
- •9.8B The future perfect simple and the future perfect progressive tenses
- •10.1 D Context
- •10.4А Certainty and uncertainty with 'be', 'seem', etc.
- •10.5B Uses of 'have' and 'have got' to mean 'possess'
- •10.7А Forms and uses of 'do' as an auxiliary and as a full verb
- •11.4B Certain and uncertain answers to questions. Possible answers:
- •11.4C Context
- •11.5A Certainty or deduction?
- •11.6C Making suggestions, inviting actions
- •11.6F Making suggestions that include the speaker
- •11.6G Context
- •11.8A Expressing personal preference with I'd rather'/'I'd sooner'
- •11.11В Uses of 'used to'
- •11.11D 'Will/would' to describe 'usual behaviour'
- •12.1 В The passive with progressive forms: 'She is being interviewed'
- •13.1 В Negative statements
- •13.1D Context:
- •13.2А Negative statements with 'negative adverbs': 'never', etc.
- •13.4А Additions and contrasts: 'John can ... And I can, too/but I can't'
- •13.5B 'Who(m)...?' as a question-word
- •13.9A Questions about alternatives (1): 'Did you laugh, or cry?'
- •13.9B Questions about alternatives (2): 'Did you take it, or didn't you?'
- •14.2А Type 2 conditionals, basic uses: 'If you went by train, you would ...'
- •14.2D Context
- •14.3D Context
- •14.4C Conjunctions we can sometimes use in place of 'if
- •15.1 A Quotation marks and other punctuation marks
- •15.1B Quotation marks and 'reporting verbs'
- •15.1C 'Quote within a quote'
- •15.1 D Context.
- •15.2C Indirect statements with the reporting verb in the present
- •15.3А Common indirect speech forms
- •15.3C Context
- •15.4А Indirect Yes/No questions: 'He asked me if I was ready'
- •15.5B Offers, suggestions, requests for advice: 'He asked if he should ...'
- •15.5C Requests for advice with question-words: 'He wanted to know how ...'
- •15.6B Context
- •16.1А Forms of the infinitive
- •16.1С The infinitive with or without 'to' after 'help' and 'know'
- •16.3C 'He advised me to take out a loan'
- •16.3D 'I know him to be an honest man'
- •16.4B Adjectives with 'too/enough': 'too weak/not strong enough to'
- •16.5А Basic information about the '-ing' form
- •16.5B Context
- •16.7C Common expressions followed by '-ing'
- •16.7E The '-ing' form after 'to' as a preposition
- •16.7F Context
- •16.8D Context
11.4 Uses of modals (etc.) to express certainty and possibility
11.4A Certainty and possibility [> LEG 11.27-30]
1 If we are certain of our facts, we use be or any full verb [> 11.1C]: Jane is at home. Jane works at home, (certain facts)
2 If we are referring to possibility, we use may, might or could + be/have been: Jane may/might/could be at home now.
She may/might/could have been at home yesterday.
Or we use may, might, could + full verb: Jane may/might/could work (or... may/might/could be working) at home. She may/ might/could have worked (or... have been working) at home yesterday.
Write 1: Read these sentences and write C (= Certain) or P (= Possible) against each one.
1 My boss is always on holiday. C 2 His wife may be with him. .. 3 She will be back next week… 4 He could reply by the weekend… 5 He wasn't here last week… 6 She might have been to Paris. 7 She's returned from Paris… 8 He could be swimming right now… 9 He'll come back in a good mood…10 He might leave this evening … 11 They've been staying at a big hotel… 12 They may have been dancing all night… 13 He borrowed my ladder. ..14 He could have borrowed my ladder…
Write 2: Turn these 'certain' statements into 'possible/less than certain' statements.
1 He is at home now …He may/ might/could be at home. 2 He will be at home tomorrow… 3 He was at home yesterday … 4 She leaves at 9 … 5 She will leave tomorrow … 6 She has left … 7 She left last night … 8 She will have left by 9 … 9 He is working today … 10 He will be working today … 11 He was working today … 12 He has been working all day …
Write 3: Write uncertain answers to these questions.
1 Where's Jim today? He may/might/could be at home. 2 Where was Jim yesterday? 3 Where will Jim be tomorrow? 4 What time does the train leave?... 5 What time did the train leave last night?... 6 What's Sue doing at the moment?... 7 What was Sue doing yesterday?... 8 What will Sue be doing tomorrow?... 9 What has Sue been doing this week?... 10 What has John had for breakfast?... 11 Where has Ann parked the car?... 12 What did that car cost?...
11.4B Certain and uncertain answers to questions [> LEG 11.31,13.5-6]
1 A 'certain' question may produce an 'uncertain' answer [compare > 13.1 C]: Does he like fish?- He might (do). He may (do). He could (do). He may not.
2 An 'uncertain' question may produce a 'certain' answer:
Can he still be working ? - Yes, he is.
3 We use be and have been to answer questions with be:
Is he ill? - He may be. Was he ill? - He may have been. (Not *he may*)
4 We use do/done to replace other verbs, though this is optional: - Will you catch the early train? – I may./I may do.
Has he received my message? - He could have./He could have done.
5 We also answer Wh?-questions with 'certainty' or 'uncertainty': What's his name? - It's Smith, (certain) It may/ might be Smith, (uncertain) What was his name?-It was Smith, (certain) It may/might have been Smith, (uncertain)
Write: Give uncertain answers to these questions:
1 Does she still live in London?.. 2 Where does she live?... 3 Did he catch the early train?... 4 Which train did he catch?... 5 Are they still living abroad? …6 Where are they living?... 7 Has he finished work?... 8 When did he finish work?... 9 Will you leave tomorrow?... 10.When will you leave?
11.4C Write: Put in suitable forms which express uncertainty or possibility. OLDER AND WISER?
We make decisions all the time, but we 1 can never be certain whether we are right or wrong. The work you choose to do2 … be suitable for you or it 3… not. The person you marry 4… be a perfect match or 5 … be the worst possible choice. Suppose you have saved money for the future. You 6… invest it wisely so that it grows in value or you 7… lose the lot in a foolish moment. You think you have a healthy diet, but the food you eat 8… actually be very bad for you and 9 … be the cause of terrible illness. Perhaps you travel a lot by plane. All the flights you make are routine, but one of them 10 … be your last. Decisions! Decisions! But we don't learn from experience. Experience is the quality that allows us to go on making the same mistakes with more confidence!
11.5A Certainty or deduction? [> LEG 11.27,11. 32-33]
1 We express certainty with be or any full verb: He is here. He lives here. He is leaving.
2 We express deduction with must be/can't be, must have been, can't/couldn't have been:
He must be at home. He can't be out. He must have been at home yesterday.
Or with verbs other than be: He must live abroad. He must have lived abroad.
Write: Read these sentences and write C (= Certainty) or D (= Deduction) against each one.
1 John Wright is a man of action. C 2 He was in the Galapagos ten years ago… 3 Now he lives in an enormous house…
4 He is writing a book… 5 He has been writing this book since he came back from the Galapagos… 6 He must be writing about his travels… 7 He must have seen the giant tortoises and the iguanas on the Galapagos… 8 He can't have seen any elephants on the Galapagos… 9 He can't have been working very hard on his book… 10 He must have taken a lot of photos while he was on the islands…
11 He must have done a lot of research for his book… 12 He must enjoy life…
11.5B Two kinds of 'must be' [> LEG 11.33, 11. 46-48]:
1 We use must be in the present to express deduction [> 11.1C]: You haven't eaten for hours. You must be hungry!
2 The negative of must be (= deduction) is can't be, not *mustn't be*: You've only just eaten. You can't be hungry again! (Not *mustn't be")
3 We can also use must (be) to express total obligation [> 11.1 A]: This is a hospital. You must be quiet.
4 The negative of must (be) (= total obligation) is mustn't (be) (= prohibition [> 11.3B]) You mustn't be noisy outside a hospital.
Write: a Supply must be, can't be, or mustn't be. b Write D (= Deduction) or O (= Obligation) beside each sentence.
1 The meeting is at 10 o'clock sharp and you mustn’t be late. O 2 You … at the station ten minutes before the departure of the train. 3 The children … tired already! We've only been walking for ten minutes. 4 The children … thirsty. They haven't had a drink for hours. 5 Did you hear that? It … someone walking about in our garden. 6 I don't recognize the handwriting on this envelope. It … from anyone we know. 7 Your handwriting … clear, otherwise no one will be able to read it. 8 You … a nuisance when you're a guest in someone's house. 9 Don't panic! We … late for the train. It doesn't leave till 10.05. 10 We … late for the train or we'll miss our connection.
11.5C 'Must have been', 'can't/ couldn't have been'; 'had to be/didn't have to be' [> LEG 11.32-33]
1 We express deduction about the past with must have been:
You hadn't eaten for hours. You must have been hungry!
2 The negative of must have been is can't/couldn't have been, not *mustn't have been*: You had already eaten. You can't/ couldn't have been hungry! (Not 'mustn't have been*)
3 Must (= total obligation) is not a 'complete verb' [> 11.1B]. We use had to in the past: The meeting was at 10 this morning and I had to be there. (Not "must have been*)
4 The negative of had to is didn't have to: It was a holiday yesterday, so I didn't have to be at work. (Not 'mustn't have been*)
Write: Supply must have been, can't/couldn't have been, have to/had to (be), didn't have to (be).
1 He knows a lot about flying planes. He must have been a pilot when he was young. 2 Vera … at the supermarket this morning. I didn't see her there. 3 John … at the bank till 10, so he only arrived here five minutes ago. 4 When … (she) … at the hospital? - Early this morning. 5 We had enough foreign currency left at the end of the holiday, so I … buy any more. 6 Monica knew exactly what to do. I … tell her twice. 7 There are so many nice things for tea, I think you …expecting us. 8 There … an accident on South Street because the road is closed off. 9 You … waiting long. After all, I'm only five minutes late. 10 When I was a boy we … sitting at our desks working before the boss got in. 11 I left a message on your answer phone last night. You … out. 12 The fire alarm went and we … out of the building in two minutes.
11.5D Write: Put in must be/ must have been, can't be/can't have been, had to be or didn't have to be. THE MYSTERY OF THE TALKING SHOE. Tracy Evans 1didn’t have to be at work till 10, so she ignored her alarm clock. But she woke up with a start when she heard a strange sound coming from her wardrobe! What was it? It 2 … a mouse, Tracy thought. No, it 3 … She knew there were no mice in her room. 4 You… careful, Tracy said to herself as she opened the wardrobe. There, in front of her, was the lovely pair of wedge-shaped sandals she had bought the day before. Then she heard the sound again! 'It 5 … coming from my sandals!' she cried. She picked them up and, sure enough, one of them was 'talking'! Tracy 6 … at work at ten, but she still had enough time to visit Mr Lucas, her shoemaker. He removed the wooden heel and they were both amazed to see a white larva eating the wood. Mr Pope, of the Natural History Museum, solved the mystery. These shoes 7 … (import) from Brazil. An insect 8 … (lay) its eggs in the tree from which the shoes were made,' he explained.