3 Articles 3.1 The indefinite article: 'a/an' (1)

3.1 A General statements with 'a/an' and zero (0) [> leg з.7.3.9.1-2,3.19.1]

1 A and an have exactly the same meaning. We use a in front of consonant sounds (a man, a year) and an in front of vowel sounds (аn umbrella, an eye, an hour),

2 We can talk about people or things 'in general' with a/an or with the plural - 0 [> 3.5A]. Instead of: Cats are domestic animals. (= 'cats in general') We can say: A cat is a domestic animal. (= 'cats in general')

Write: Make the singular sentences plural and the plural sentences singular.

1 A small computer isn't expensive Small computers aren't expensive. 2 A quartz watch doesn't last for ever ... 3 І like plays with messages ... 4 I admire politicians who are sincere ... 5 A big city is always fascinating ... 6 Even an efficient system can break down ... 7 A road map is always out of date ... 8 A rule is meant to be broken ... 9 Restaurants shouldn't charge too much ... 10 How much do car radios cost? ... 11 A bus leaves here every hour ...12 How long does a letter take to get here?…

3.1 В The 'plural form' of 'a/an' [> leg 3.5-6,3.9.1-2]

1 The plural of a/an is zero (0) when we refer to 'things in general^’: A cat is a domestic animal. - (0) Cats are (0) domestic animals.

2 The plural of a/an is some or any when we refer to 'quantity' [but compare > 5.3A]: There's a sandwich on the plate. - There are some sandwiches on the plate. [> 5.3B] We use numbers in place of a/an and some/any only when we are counting: There's only one sandwich left. - There are only four sandwiches left. [> 3.2B]

Write: Turn these sentences into the plural, making all necessary changes. 1 She's an architect... They're architects 2 Do you want a potato?... 3 A doctor needs years of training... 4 How well can a cat see in the dark?... 5 Have you got a cat at home?... 6 Why should a compact disc be so dear? 7 I borrowed a compact disc... 8 Can you lend me a compact disc?... 9 Why is a car so expensive?... 10 There isn't a car in the street...

3.1C Describing people and things with 'a/an' + noun: 'He's a doctor' [> LEG 3.9.3-4, App 49]

1 We use some words as adjectives or nouns when we want to describe people. When we use them as countable nouns, we always put a/an in front of them [> 2.ЗА], e.g. - nationality: She's American, (adjective) or: She's an American (noun) [> 3.3C] - religion: She's Anglican, (adjective) or: She's an Anglican, (noun) - politics: He's Conservative, (adjective) or: He's a Conservative, (noun)

2 We use some words only as countable nouns (people and things) and we always put a/an in front of them: He's a doctor. (Not *He's doctor.*) It's a tree. (Not 'It's tree.’) We can also use adjective + noun: She's a good girl. (Not 'She's good girl.")

3 We can use a/an in front of proper nouns (names spelt with a capital letter) for: - members of a family: He's a Forsyte. (= a member of the Forsyte family) - literature and art: It's a Dickens novel. It's a Brecht play. Sometimes we can use the name on its own. We can say It's a Rembrandt painting or it's a Rembrandt.

Write: Write sentences using He's..., She's..., It's ... + noun for each of the following.

1 What does he do? He drives a taxi. He is a taxi-driver 2 What's her religion? She's Catholic... 3 Where does he come from? He comes from England… 4 What's that? (ant)... 5 What's that? (kind of insect)… 6 What political party does she belong to? She's socialist… 7 What does she do? She teaches children… 8 What does she do? (architect)… 9 What is it? (sonnet by Shakespeare)… 10 What is it? (painting by Picasso)…

3.1 D Write: Put in a, some, any or '-'. Alternatives are possible. AT YOUR SERVICE, SIR!

¹... - robots are common in industry and perhaps they will soon be common in the home. ²...robot working in the home must be able to behave like³... human. You could ask it to make breakfast for you. 'I'd like⁴... pot of coffee, please and ⁵... boiled eggs.' 'How many, sir?' Two please.' You wouldn't have to worry about bringing friends home to dinner. 'I've brought⁶... friends for dinner,' you would say, 'please prepare⁷... meal for six.' Your robot would be⁸... cook,⁹... servant and ¹⁰... cleaner, and perhaps it could even do the shopping. 'We haven't got¹¹... tomatoes,' you would say. 'Be¹²... good robot and get some from the supermarket.'¹³... robots would never need to sleep, and would never complain. But I wouldn't want them wandering round the house at night! !

3.2A The use of 'a/an' when something is mentioned for the first time [> LEG 3.8, 3.10.2]

We use a/an to introduce a person or thing for the first time. This shows that the listener or reader doesn't know what we are referring to. After this first reference, we use the. I watched a car as it came up our road. The car stopped outside our house and a man got out. The man was carrying a case in his hand. With the case in his hand, the man looked like a salesman.

Write: Supply a/an or the in the following text.

During our journey we came to ¹...a...bridge. As we were crossing ²... bridge, we met ³...old man and spoke to him.⁴... man refused to answer us at first. He could tell at a glance that we had escaped from ⁵... prisoner-of-war camp and he was afraid of getting into trouble. We weren't⁶... first prisoners of war to have escaped from ⁷... camp. As soon as Jim produced⁸...revolver,⁹... man proved very willing to answer our questions. He told us exactly where we were and directed us to ¹⁰... farm where we might find food.

3.2B The difference between 'a/an' and 'one' [> leg 3.10.1, 3.11]

1 We do not use a/an + noun and one + noun in the same way. We use a/an to mean 'any one': I'd like a coffee, please. We use one when we are counting: It was one coffee I ordered and not two.

2 We use one with day, morning, evening when we are telling a story: One day, when I was working as a salesman, I received a strange telephone call. Compare: / had to stay in bed for a day. (= any day, it doesn't matter which) / had to stay in bed for one day. (= one day and not two or more)

3 We use a/an or one with:

- Whole numbers: a/one hundred, thousand.

- Fractions: a/one quarter, half, third, fourth, fifth

- Money: a/one pound, dollar,

- Weights, measures: a/one kilo, foot.

Write: Supply a/an or one in these sentences. Note where you can use either a/an or one.

1 I need a picture-hook to hang this picture. 2 Did you say you wanted... picture-hook or two? 3 ... nail won't be enough for this job. I need several. 4 You should use ... hammer to drive in those nails. 5 How many orange juices did you say? Just ... orange juice, please. 6 You should get out into the fresh air on ... day like this! 7 ... day, many years later, I learnt the truth. 8 I was out walking late ... evening when I saw ... strange object in the sky. 9 He says he's going to be ... millionaire ...day. 10 There were over ... hundred people at the party. 11 Have you ever seen ... silent movie? 12 I've only ever seen ... silent movie.

3.2C 'A/an' for price, distance and frequency: '80p a kilo' [> leg 3.12]

- price/weight: 80p a kilo;

- distance/speed: 40 km an hour;

- distance/fuel: 30 miles a (or to the) gallon (английский галлон = 4,54 л; американский = 3,785 л) equal to four quarts (in Britain to approximately 1.13 litres and in the US to approximately 0.94 litre);

- frequency/time: twice a day

Write: Write complete answers to these questions.

1 How much are these apples? 90p/kilo They're 90p a kilo. 2 How often do you take these pills? once/day 3 What speed are we doing? 100 km/hour 4 How many miles a gallon do you do? 45 miles/gallon 5 How often is the rubbish collected? twice/week 6 What does olive oil cost? £3/litre

Mile(also statute mile) a unit of linear measure equal to 1,760 yards (approximately 1.609 kilometres)

3.2D 'A/an' or zero with reference to illnesses: 'a cold' [> leg 3.15]

1 We always use a/an with these illnesses: a cold, a headache, a sore throat.

2 We can use or omit a/an with these: catch (a) cold, have (a/an) backache/earache/stomachache /toothache.

3 We use no article at all with these plurals: measles кір, mumps or paroti(di)tis «свинка» або паротит, shingles опоясуючий лишай.

4 We use no article with these: (high/low) blood pressure, flu, gout/podagra, hepatitis

Write: Supply a/an where necessary. Note where you can use a/an or zero (-). 1 I'm going to bed. I've got …a... headache. 2 I was awake all night with ... toothache. 3 I think Gillian's got ... flu. 4 The children are in bed with ... mumps. 5 Mind you don't catch ... cold. 6 ... measles can be very unpleasant. 7 Don't come near me. I've got ... sore throat. 8 I think I've got ... cold! 9 I've had ... terrible backache. 10 I often suffer from ... backache.

3.2E Write: Put in a, the, or one only where necessary. HERE'S HEALTH!

'I think that's all, Mrs Grant,' Dr Grey said as she handed her¹ a list of prescriptions.²... list was very long and Mrs Grant almost fainted as she tried to read it. She had³... headache and⁴... cold and felt as if she was getting ⁵... flu. On top of this, one of her children was in bed with ⁶... mumps. 'I've prescribed some pills for⁷... high blood pressure as well,' Dr Grey said. 'How many do I have to take - ⁸... pill⁹...day?' 'No. One pill with each meal. Three pills ¹⁰... day.' Mrs Grant thanked ¹¹... doctor and walked out of her surgery with some difficulty. She staggered into the local chemist's and handed ¹²... long prescription list to Mr Burt,¹³... chemist. Mr Burt greeted her cheerfully. 'Good morning, Mrs Grant,^’ he said, glancing at ¹⁴... list. 'What a list! I trust you're keeping well!' I trust you're keeping well’

3.3A The definite article: 'the' (1). Form and basic uses of 'the' [> leg 3.16,318]

1 The never varies in form whether it refers to people or things, singular or plural:

a That's the man we met last night. b That's the woman we met last night

с That's the shirt I bought yesterday,d They're the men we met last night.

e They're the women we met last night. f They're the shirts I bought yesterday.

2 We use the to refer to something that is known. [> 3.2A]

3 The can combine with singular countable nouns (the book), plural countable nouns (the books) and uncountable nouns, which are always singular (the furniture).

Write: Supply a/an or the in the following text.

We wanted to reach ¹... a...small village and knew we must be near. Then we saw²... woman just ahead and some children playing. When we stopped to ask the way,³... woman said she was⁴... stranger herself. We called out to⁵... children, but they ignored us. Just then two men came along and we asked them the way.⁶... men didn't know, but at least they were helpful. 'There's⁷... signpost a mile along this road,' one of them said. We drove to⁸... signpost eagerly. This is what it said: NORTH POLE 6,000 MILES.

3.3B 'A/an', 'the' and zero in front of abbreviations: 'the BBC' [> LEG 3.7, 3.17, 3.24]

1 We make abbreviations with the first letters of the most important words. We then treat these abbreviations like ordinary nouns and use them with a/an, the or zero [> 3.1 C]; I’ve just bought an LP. (= a Long Playing record). We use an + vowel sound (an LP) and a + consonant sound (a VW= a Volkswagen).

2 We use a/an and full stops with titles: She's an M.A. (= Master of Arts) 3 We use the in front of institutions when we can't say them as single words. We don't use full stops: / listen to the news on the BBC. (= the British Broadcasting Corporation) We are members of UNESCO, /ju:'neskou/ (= the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) 4 We use no article (zero) with chemical symbols: CO₂ stands for Carbon Dioxide. 5 The first letters of some words are often used as normal words: e.g. Planes use radar. (= RAdio Detection And Ranging)

Write: Supply a/an, the or '-'.

1 Jim got ... a ... B.Sc. (= Bachelor of Science) from Durham University in 1988. 2 Celia is sure she's seen ... UFO (= Unidentified Flying Object). 3 ... EC (= The European Community) does a lot of trade with the rest of the world. 4 I don't know how much ... MP (= Member of Parliament) earns. 5 Which countries belong to ... NATO ? (= North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 6 ... H₂0 is the chemical formula for water. 7 I've used my computer to learn ... BASIC (= Beginners' All-purpose Instruction) 8 ... NASA [ˈnasə] (= National Aeronautics and Space Administration) had a setback in 1986.

3.3C The' + nationality nouns: 'the Chinese' [> leg 3.19.2, App 49]

We use the in front of nationality nouns to refer to 'all the people in general'. We can divide nationality nouns into four groups:

1 the + -ese or -ss: the Chinese, the Japanese, the Portuguese, the Sudanese, the Swiss.

2 the + plural ending in -s. -ian: the Austrians, the Belgians, the Brazilians, the Egyptians, the Russians. -an: the Americans, the Koreans, the Mexicans, the Venezuelans, the Zimbabweans. other -s endings: the Arabs, the Germans, the Greeks, the Poles, the Scots, the Turks.

3 Two forms: the Danes/the Danish, the Spaniards/the Spanish, the Swedes/the Swedish.

4 the + -en or -sft- the British, the Dutch, the English, the French, the Irish, the Welsh

Write: Rewrite these sentences using nationality nouns to refer to 'the people in general'. 1 The people from Portugal are very different from the people from Spain. The Portuguese ... the Spanish/the Spaniards. 2 The people from America and the people from Russia understand each other better. 3 The people from Brazil speak Portuguese, but the people from Mexico speak Spanish. 4 The people from Germany and the people from Japan work very hard. 5 The people from Greece buy ships from the people from Korea. 6 The people from Britain and the people from Holland do a lot of foreign trade.

3.3D Write: Put in a or the. ANCIENT SECRETS

Mr Denys Stocks,¹ a retired policeman, has just been given²... B.Sc. for twelve years' research into ancient Egyptian industrial methods. Egyptologists have often wondered how³... Egyptians were able to cut such hard stone and how they produced such fine jewellery. Mr Stocks has shown that⁴... Egyptians used saws and drills.⁵... saws and drills were made of copper, which is very soft. But⁶... Egyptian craftsmen turned them into very powerful tools. First⁷... craftsman made⁸... cut in⁹... stone with ¹⁰... soft saw. Then ¹¹... craftsman poured sand into¹²... cut.¹³... hard sand got into ¹⁴... teeth of ¹⁵... saw and did ¹⁶... cutting. In this way,¹⁷... worker could cut basalt ['bæsɔ:lt,bə'sɔ:lt], one of the hardest rocks.¹⁸... sand he used turned into ^1Э... very fine powder.²⁰... powder was then used by jewellers to cut precious stones and to make delicate jewellery.

3.4 The definite article: 'the' (2) 3.4A The' for specifying [> leg 3.20]

1 When we use the, the listener or reader knows or can understand what we are referring to. We can make a reference 'specific' or 'definite' by means of:

- back reference: We stopped at a small village. The village was very pretty. [> 3.2A, 3.3A]

- the + noun + of. The life of Napoleon was very stormy.

- a clause (= part of a sentence): The Jones I'm referring to is a colleague of mine.

- context The listener knows exactly what we are referring to. That's why we say: It's the postman. (Not 'a postman")

She's gone to the butcher's. (Not *a butcher's*) [> 2.8D] Running is good for the heart. (Not *a heart")

2 We often say the cinema, the theatre, the supermarket, the bank, etc. even if we don't know exactly which: He's gone to the cinema/the theatre/the supermarket/the bank.

3 We refer to the country, the mountains, the seaside even if we don't know exactly where: We're spending the weekend in the country/in the mountains/at the seaside.

4 We use the to refer to 'one of a kind': the Earth, the sea, the sky, the sun, the moon, the solar system, the planets, the Galaxy, the Milky Way, the universe: The earth doesn't belong to us.

Write: Supply a/an, the or '-'. 1 We were looking for a place to spend the night. … place we found turned out to be in ... charming village. ... village was called ... Lodsworth. 2 ... individual has every right to expect personal freedom. ... freedom of ... individual is something worth fighting for. 3 Yes, my name is ... Simpson, but I'm not ... Simpson you're looking for. 4 Who's at... door? - It's ... postman. 5 When you go out, would you please go to ...supermarket and get some butter. 6 I've got ... appointment this afternoon. I've got to go to ... doctor's. 7 We went to… theatre last night and saw Flames. It's ... wonderful play. 8 We prefer to spend our holidays in ... country ... mountains or by... sea. 9 We have seen what … earth looks like from ... moon. 10 This is the front room. ... ceiling and ... walls need decorating, but... floor is in good order. We'll probably cover it with... carpet. 11 You're imagining ... things. All your fears are in ... mind. 12 Look at this wonderful small computer ... top lifts up to form ... screen; ... front lifts off to form ... keyboard and... whole thing only weighs 5 kilos. 13 ... history of... world is.... history of… war. 14 Is there ... moon round... planet Venus? 15 What's... John doing these days? - He's working as ... postman. 16 ... exercise is good for... body. 17 Could you pass me... salt, please? 18 They're building ... new supermarket in ... centre of our town. 19 Where's your mother at ...moment? - I think she's in ... kitchen. 20 If you were a cook, you'd have to work in ...kitchen all day long.

3.4B ‘The’ to refer to things that are unique (not place names) [> 3.8C. leg 3.22]

1 We often use the to refer to 'things that are unique':

a organizations: the United Nations

b ships: the Titanic

с documents: the Constitution

d public bodies: the police, the Government

e titles of books and films: The Odyssey

f climate: the weather

g historical events: the French Revolution

h official titles: the President; political parties: the Labour Party

j the press: The Economist, The Times

k beliefs: the gods

I the whole species: the dinosaurs

2 We treat other, similar words as proper nouns [> 3.5A] and use no article (zero), e.g.

a organizations: Congress, Parliament

b titles of books and films: Jaws

с beliefs: God, Buddha

d official titles: Queen Elizabeth

e the press: Punch, Time magazine

f the whole species: Man

Write: Supply the or '-'.

1 I like to read newspapers like the Times and the Washington Post. 2 I read ... Economist every week and ... Time magazine. 3 Do you think ... New Yorker and ... Рunch have much in common? 4 We can't be sure about the history of ... human race, but ... man developed earlier than we think, though we certainly weren't around at the time of ... dinosaurs. 5 I like watching old films. I recently watched ... Graduate and ... Jaws on video. 6 The Ancient Greeks believed in ... gods. The idea of ... God was not known to them. 7 I've read Homer's ... Odyssey, but I haven't read Joyce's ... Ulysses. 8 ... United Nations may be a talking shop, but so is ... Congress. 9 A lot of people object to attempts to bring up … Titanic. 10 My oldest son joined ... Navy and now my youngest wants to join ... Army. 11 France celebrated the 200th anniversary of ... French Revolution in 1989. 12 In many countries, the head of state is called ... President. 13 Do you know who killed ... President Lincoln? 14 Because of the greenhouse effect ... climate of the world is changing.

3.4C Write: Put in a/an or the. SUNRAYCER

I read recently in ¹the Times that the big American company, General Motors, has developed ²... vehicle that uses³... power of⁴ ... sun instead of petrol.⁵... vehicle is called Sunraycer. Sunraycer has just taken part in ⁶... race against 25 solar-powered vehicles. ⁷... route of⁸ ... race was from Darwin to Adelaide,⁹… immense distance. Sunraycer covered ¹⁰... distance in 45 hours at¹¹... average speed of 41 miles ¹²... hour in temperatures as high as 48°C. It beat all other cars by two and '³... half days! Sunraycer ('ray of the sun' + 'racer') is certainly ^u... car of¹⁵... future^!

3.5 The zero article (1) 3.5A Basic uses of the zero article (0): 'Life is short' > LEG 3.24-26,3.27.1,3.27.3

We often use no article at all (zero) in English where some other languages use the:

1 In front of plural countable nouns used in general statements [> 3.1 A], e.g. for:

- people: 0 Women need better pay.

- places: 0 Museums are closed on Mondays.

- animals: 0 Cats don't like cold weather.

- plants: 0 Trees don't grow in the Antarctic.

- food: 0 Beans are good for you.

- products: 0 Watches aren't expensive.

(Not 'The beans are good for you." etc.) [compare > 5.3A]

2 In front of uncountable nouns (always singular) used in general statements, e.g. for:

- food: I like 0 butter.

- substances: 0 Oil is produced in Alaska.

- colours: 0 Red is my favourite colour.

- activities: 0 Swimming is good for you.

- abstract: 0 Life is short.

- languages: 0 English is a world language. (Not "The life is short.'etc.) [compare > 5.3A]

3 In front of most proper nouns (names spelt with a capital letter) [> 3.1 C, 3.GC]: Fritz Weber lives in Berlin. This was made by Jackson and Son. By comparison, we use the when the reference is specific, not in general statements:

1 In front of plural countable nouns: The beans I like best are kidney beans.

2 In front of uncountable nouns: I used all the butter that was in the butter dish.

3 In front of proper nouns: The Fritz Weber I know lives in Vienna.

Write: Supply the or '-'.

A lot of people are giving up ... meat. 2... meat we had for lunch last Sunday was very tough. 3 As someone said, ... life is just one damned thing after another. 4 I don't know much about ... life of ... Napoleon. 5 ... running is supposed to be good for you. 6 I ought to be fit with all ... running I do, but I don't feel fit. 7 Which is your favourite colour? ... Red. 8 I think … red one will suit you best ... Red is more your colour. 9 We learnt ... English at school, but ... English we learnt was useless. 10 ... London is a safe city today, but ... London of the 18th century was pretty rough.11 ... watches have become very cheap and very attractive. 12 Most of ... watches you see today work on ... quartz. 13 ... indoor plants require a lot of effort and attention. 14 ... Bach gives me a great deal of pleasure.15 ... Bach recording you bought for my birthday is first class. 16 What has been the longest period of … peace in ... history? 17 If you study ... History, you've got to read a lot. 18 ... fasting during... Ramadan is more difficult in the summer months. 19... journeys to unknown places require a lot of preparation. 20 ... lives of ... poets and ... musicians have often been unbearably difficult. 21 I'm not interested in the price of ... silver or the price of ... gold. 22 ... time is ... money. 23 I can never regret ... time I've spent enjoying myself. 24 I often listen to ... music and I like ... jazz best.

3.5B The zero article with names and titles: 'Mr. Pym' [> LEG 213,3.27]

1 We do not normally use articles in front of proper nouns (like John, London, etc.).

2 We use a surname or first name + surname after Mr., Mrs., Miss and Ms. [miz,məz] Mr. Pym. We often write, but rarely say Ms., as in Ms. Joan Cartwright.

3 We abbreviate Doctor to Dr in writing and use a surname after it: I'm Dr Brown, but we can use Doctor on its own as a form of address (written in full): It's my liver, Doctor.

4 In British English Madam and Sir can be used as forms of address, e.g. by shop assistants: Yes, madam? Sir is also a title in front of first name (+ surname): Sir John (Falstaff), (Not 'Sir Falstaff"). Americans use Sir on its own to speak to strangers.

5 We can say Uncle and Auntie (but not 'Cousin' or 'Sister") to address our relations.

6 Major and Professor can be used with names or on their own.

7 Nurse and sometimes Sister can be used as forms of address for nurses.

Write: Mark with an X those sentences that are wrong or unacceptable and briefly say why: 1 Excuse me, Mr. - can you tell me the way to the station, please? X 2 Good morning, Doctor. 3 Don't ask me. Ask Mrs Elizabeth. 4 Can I introduce you to Mrs Elizabeth Jackson? 5 I have an appointment with Dr White. 6 I've just received a letter from cousin Frank. 7 Can I help you, Mrs? 8 Can I help you, Madam? 9 Sir Falstaff is a famous Shakespeare character. 10 May I have a word with you please, Professor? 11 I've addressed the letter to Professor John Williams. Is that right? 12 Nurse, could I speak to you for a moment, please?

3.5C Write: Put in a/an, the or nothing: FOOD FIT FOR A KING!

1 ...—... seeds dating from 1325 B.C. have been found at2... Kew Gardens in 3... London. 'It's4 ... exciting discovery,'5 ... Professor Arthur Bell,6... Director, said yesterday.7... seeds were found in 30 cardboard boxes by8 ... French student,9 ... Christian Tutundjian de Vartavan.10 ... seeds come from 11 ... tomb of12... King Tutankhamun. Inside 13 ... tomb were shawabtis, that is, model human beings who would serve 14 ... King after15 ... death. Inside 16 ... Tutankhamun's tomb, there was 17... wheat for making 18 ... bread,19 ... barley, perhaps for brewing20 ... beer, and spices like21 ... coriander,22 ... cumin and23 ... sesame, as well as24 ... grapes and 25 ... tropical fruits. 26... food had to be suitable for27... King's last journey, but it was very tasty, too!