1 The topical vocabulary.

Democracy — демократия ruler — правитель law-maker — законодатель elections — выборы candidate — кандидат campaign — политическая кампания run-up — подготовка, разбег political party — политическая партия platform — политическая платформа manifest — манифест soapbox, stump — импровизированная трибуна

heckle — прерывать оратора критичес­кими замечаниями whistle stop — остановка в маленьких ме­стечках для встречи с избирателями (во время избирательной компании) rally — съезд, собрание, массовый митинг walkout — забастовка make gaffes — совершать ошибки, де­лать ложные шаги primaries — предварительные выборы, голосование для определения канди­дата на выборах nomination — назначение на должность, выставление кандидата на выборах

bid — заявка на должность running mate — кандидат на пост вице- президента disinformation —дезинформация opinion poll — общественное мнение urvey — отчет raiting — рейтинг ballot — голосование electorate — контингент избирателей legislature — законодательная власть concede — допускать, признавать, ус­тупать regime — режим authorian — авторитарный autocratic — самодержавный, деспоти­ческий

hardline — “жесткий” курс totalitarian — тоталитарный one-party rule — однопартийное прав­ление

dictatorship — диктатура opposition — оппозиция civil — гражданский dissident — диссидент human rights abuses — нарушение прав человека

344. Study the following material. Learn to use the words in italics.

GOVERNMENT

For the last century or so, the world has been divided into countries, each ruled by a government. Governments vary from harsh dictatorships to liberal democracies, but they are all intended to control the particular way the coun­try and its people run their affairs.

KINGS, QUEENS AND EMPERORS

In the past, most societies were ruled by kings, queens or emperors. Often kings were said to have gods as ancestors, and so had the right to rule, like

the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. In the Middle Ages, Christian kings and queens were thought of as the agents of God, which is why they were crowned in church. In later centuries, powerful kings such as Henry VIII of England and Louis XIV of France were said to rule by divine right. This idea only ended with the English Civil War and the French Revolution.

IDEAS OF GOVERNMENT

People have been governed by kings and others since the first days of civi­lization. But modern ideas of government date back to the 1600s when, for the first time, people began to question a king’s right to rule, once thought to be god-given.

The English thinker Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) argued that without government, peoples’ lives would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.” Hobbes said they should agree to obey a king who could keep peace between them. He called this agreement a social contract.

Later thinkers like Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that people should only obey laws if they helped make them. This is the basis of democracy, which means rule by the people. The idea of democracy originated in Ancient Greece, but it was only in the 1800s that countries like Britain began to slowly move towards it.

SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT

Every country has its own system but the government is usually split into three sections: the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. The legisla­ture amends laws and makes new ones; the executive puts them into effect, and the judiciary makes sure they are applied fairly. In the UK, the legislature is Parliament, with its two houses: the important House of Commons made up of members (MPs) elected by the public, and the less important House affords made up of peers. The executive is the prime minister, cabinet and other ministers.

MODERN DEMOCRACIES

Today, democracy usually means an elected government made up of politi­cians voted into power every few years by all adults. Most democracies have a written set of laws called a constitution setting out how the government should be run. Britain does not have one.

Some democracies, like France, are republics. This means the head of state is not a king but an elected president. In the USA, the president is very much in charge. In other republics, however, the president is just a figurehead and the country is run by a chancellor or prime minister.

Britain, Spain and many other democratic countries are still monarchies — that is, they have a king or queen. But the monarch’s powers are limited and the country is run by a government led by a prime minister. The government is made up from the party with most elected members.

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AUTOCRACIES

In an autocracy, a single person or small group holds all the power. In Iran, Islamic religious leaders hold power; in others, it is the army. A dictator is someone whose word is law, like Hitler in Nazi Germany.

POLITICS

People who stand for election are called politicians. Left-wing politicians want to change things, perhaps to make government more democratic or to bring in socialist ideas. Right-wing politicians want to conserve or keep the system as it is, which is why they are called conservatives. Usually politi­cians with similar views join a group called a party. In most democratic coun­tries, the party with the most votes forms the government.

POLITICAL SYSTEMS

Most countries are capitalist, which means most things, including in­dustries and businesses, are owned by small groups or individuals. In com­onist countries like China, all property is owned by the community, or rather, the government. Socialists believe government should ensure ev­eryone has equal rights, a fair share of money, and good health, education and housing. Fascists believe in army discipline and that they and their coun­try are superior to others.

ELECTIONS

In democracies, governments are chosen by election. In a general elec­tion, all adults in the country can vote for candidates (politicians) who want to be elected. People usually vote by putting a mark next to a name on a list called a ballot sheet. Just who is elected depends on the system. In first-past-the-post systems like Britain’s, only the candidate who re­ceives the most votes in each constituency (area) is elected. So if a par­ty loses by just a few votes in every area, it might get no candidates elect­ed at all. With proportional representation, the number elected for each party depends on how many of the votes the party got across the whole country.

EXTREME GOVERNMENTS

Many countries have oppressive governments — governments that al­low a few people to force their will on the rest of the country. They do this in a number of ways. Some use soldiers and tanks. Some use the power of money. Some use secret police and spies to stamp out opposition. Some use television and newspapers to fool people into thinking the “right” way. This is called propaganda. Most oppressive governments use a combination of all these tactics. Communist China is thought to have an oppressive gov­ernment. So too are countries like Iraq.

electorate

W

^:i:Note that the number of Lords may vary, as new life peers are appointed, etc.

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4 Agree or disagree.

1. The introduction of market economy will make the economic situation in the country still worse.

2. As a result of the privatization of public services prices will rise.

3. There are lots of problems that can’t be solved by means of negotiations.

4. Many countries are against banning the spread of nuclear weapons.

5. Most of the African countries have weapons of mass destruction in their arsenals.

6. East European countries are against establishing closer links with West­ern Europe.

7. West European countries are not interested in importing oil and gas from the Middle East.

8. The development of trade with foreign countries promotes the growth of national economy.

9. It is necessary to defend democracy and human rights.

10. A nuclear war can be prevented by building weapons of mass destruction.

5 Complete the sentences.

1. The two leaders exchanged views on ….

2. As a result of the talks ….

3. The policy persued by … is aimed at….

4. We stand for ….

5. The delegate proposed that ,

6. They demanded that….

7. He called on the opposition parties ….

8. The aim of his visit to … is ….

9. He resigned because ….

10. The Prime Minister declared that the Government would take steps to ….

11. The speaker called for … .

12. The head of the Government accused the opposition forces of….

13. The President is due to ….

6 Study the following text. What is your idea on the topic? How can you become the leader of the country?

One way is to be born into the royal family. If you are prince, especially the eldest son, then one day you can become a king. And in some countries, if you are the eldest daughter (a princess) and there are no sons, then one day you could become a queen. Of course, today there are not many royal families, and those still exist do not usually have the power to make laws and govern. A more usual way to become leader of your country, however, is to become

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS

a politician and then to become the leader of the most popular political party. In most countries where the people elect their government, the voters usually vote for a person who belongs to one of the main political parties. This person is usually the candidate for the local region. The candidate who receives the most votes becomes the political representative for that region and takes a seat (a place) in the national parliament or assembly. The political party which wins the most seats then has the right to form a government and take power. The head of that political party then becomes the president (in countries such as Taiwan or Italy) or the prime minister (in countries such as Great Britain and Japan).

In some countries, such as France and the United States, the system is a little different. Every seven years in France, and every four years in the United States, there are presidential elections. At this time the people vote directly for the person that they want to become president. Regional elections are indepen­dent from presidential elections. This means that it is possible to become the President and yet not be the leader of the most popular political party.

7 Practise the following conversation.

A: I’ve just heard a speech by the governor. He’s an excellent speaker.

В: Yes, he’s a good man. I like him. Although I don’t always see eye to eye with him.

A: There’s one good thing about him: he isn’t behind the time. He knows this is the twentieth century.

B\ I like the way he got right down to business. He’s a man of action. Right from the start.

A: That’s true. He made a point of going to work immediately.

8 Think about.

1. Can you describe how a person becomes the political leader of your' country?

2. Which countries have royal families? Do these royal families have much political power?

3. Do you have political parties in your country? What are the differences between them?

9 The Daily Dirt newspaper has accused the Prime Minister ^ Mr Tricky of a number of illegal activities. Tricky has written his replies on the article. Imagine what they are.

We at one Daily Dirt have evidence that the Prime Minister:

1. overspent three times on his election campaigns;

2. has made up nasty stories about political opponents;

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3. produces false economic statistics;

4. uses government planes for private travel;

5. has told lies to Parliament about government plans;

6. has angry arguments with the ministers about policy;

7. accepts payments from large companies.

10 Which issues are people discussing in your region at the

moment? Choose one of them and collect opinions on it in your class. Then write a letter to an English-speaking pen-friend and tell her/him about the issue and the various opinions.

11 Some people think the number of women in parliament should be equal to the number of men. What is your opinion?

12 Write a short text why you would like/wouldn’t like to be a politician.

13 Many people want to be involved, but they do not know what

they can do. Read these statements and say which of these goals you could make your goals. Choose some four goals and say more exactly what they would mean to you.

My personal goals are to

• stay informed

• learn more about a certain issue

• learn more about the political system

• volunteer to work on a community project

• write a letter to a local newspaper about a problem

• write a letter to a politician about a certain issue or concern

• collect signatures for or against an issue in my community.

14 Find out how well informed you are. Make use of the following questions.

1. What do you see as the central political issue today (in your country or in the world)? Why are you concerned about?

2. Where could you obtain more information about the issue? (What organizations could you contact, etc.?)

3. What effective action could you personally take? (What would that mean for you as far as time, energy or your personality are concerned?)

4. Write a letter to a politician (newspaper) organization about the prob­lem, or give a talk about it.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS

15 . Study the following text. Would you like to be the Queen/King?

Why? Why not?

The queen s working day

When The Queen is in residence at Buckingham Palace, every day is a working day, both for her and for the Duke of Edinburgh. They meet for a quick breakfast at half-past eight when they will discuss each other’s daily programme but, unless they have joint engagements, they frequently do not see each other again until late evening. By 9.30 am Her Majesty is at her desk ready to start the day’s routine.

A digest of the day’s newspapers will have been prepared for her by the Press Secretary with items of particular interest marked or cut out. When Parliament is sitting, a report on the previous day’s proceedings will have been delivered by the Vice-Chamberlain of the Household.

One of Her Majesty’s three Private Secretaries will then arrive with the morning’s post. Letters from children are usually passed to one of the ladies- in-waiting for a reply and certain official correspondence may be sent on to the appropriate government department for action. But there are always plenty that require her own attention. Another frequent duty of The Queen is the sending of around 2,000 centenary telemessages each year to people who reach their hundredth birthday.

Throughout the working day a number of visitors will call ranging from incoming or outgoing diplomats to Her Majesty’s dressmakers, who may ar­rive to discuss the wardrobe for a forthcoming overseas tour.

Once a month a meeting of the Privy Council is held in order that the Royal Assent may be given to various items of government legislation.

At the end of the morning Her Majesty usually lunches alone and then in the afternoon she will often have an engagement in the London area. On her return she may well hold important domestic discussions with the Master of the Household, for Her Majesty is not only the Sovereign but also mistress of the house — the largest house in the country.

Towards the end of the day there is always another pile of official papers, government documents and reports to be read, initialled or acted upon. Even when the members of the Royal Househols have all gone home for the night there is often one light still burning: it is The Queen’s, for whom the business of a constitutional monarchy never ends.

16 Present your thoughts to the government: “Pupils should be

allowed to leave school whenever they or their parents like.”

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17 Study the following text.

UNITED NATIONS

Founded in 1945 near the end of World War II with 51 members, the United Nations now numbers some 180 nations. Its aims are to preserve world peace, promote self-determination and to aid economic and social well-being around the globe. New York was chosen as the UN headquarters when John D Rock­efeller, Jr donated $8.5 million for the purchase of the East River site. The chief architect was American Wallace Harrison, who worked with an international Board of Design Consultants. The 18 acre (7 ha) site is not on US territory. It is an international zone and has its own stamps and post office. Daily guided tours show visitors the various council chambers and General Assembly hall.

THE WORK OF THE UNITED NATIONS

The goals of the United Nations are pursued by three UN councils and a General Assembly comprising all member nations. The Secretariat carries out the administrative work of the organization. Guided tours allow visitors to see the Security Council Chamber and General Assembly Hall.

Translators interpret debates in Arabic,

. French, Russian,

or English

Public gallery

Public entrance

General Assambly Hall

Reporters

Nation delegates sit in alphabetical order by country, but who sits at the front is decided before every session by drawing lots

Secretary General

GENERAL ASSEMBLY

The General Assembly is the governing body of the UN, and has regular sessions each year from mid-September to mid-December. Special sessions are also held when the Security Council or a majority of members request one. All

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS

member states are represented with an equal vote, regardless of size. The General Assembly may discuss any international problem raised by the mem­bers or by other UN bodies. While it cannot enact laws, recommendations strongly influence world opinion; these require a two-thirds majority vote.

Lots are drawn before each session to determine the seating in the cham­ber for the delegations. All 2,070 seats in the chamber are equipped with ear­phones which offer simultaneous translations in several languages. The Gen­eral Assembly also appoints the Secretary General (on the recommendation of the Security Council), approves the UN budgets and elects the non-perma­nent members of the Councils. Together with the Security Council, it also appoints the judges of the International Court of Justice based in the Nether­lands.

SECURITY COUNCIL

The most powerful part of the UN is the Security Council. It strives to achieve international peace and security, and intervenes in crises such as the fighting in Kuwait or the former Yugoslavia. It is the only body whose decisions member states are obliged to obey, and the only one in continuous session.

Five of its members — China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States — are permanent. The other nations are elected by the General Assembly to serve two-years terms.

When international conflicts arise, the Council’s first tries to seek agree­ment by mediation. If fighting breaks out, it may issue cease-fire orders and impose military or economic sanctions. It could also decide to send UN peace­keeping missions into troubled areas to separate opposing factions until is­sues can be resolved through diplomatic channels.

Military intervention is the Council’s last resort. UN forces may be de­ployed, and peace-keeping forces are resident in places such as Cyprus and the Middle East.

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

The smallest of the councils, this is the only UN body whose workload is decreasing. The council was established in 1945 with the goal of fostering peace­ful independence for non-self-governing territories or colonies. Since then, more than 80 colonies have gained self-rule and the number of people living in depen­dent territories had been reduced from 750 million to about 3 million. The coun­cil currently consists of the five permanent members of the Security Council.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

The 54 members of this Council work to improve the standard of living and social welfare around the world, goals which consume 80% of the UN’s re­sources. It makes recommendations to the General Assembly, to each

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member nation and to the UN’s specialized agencies. The Council is assisted by commissions dealing with regional economic problems, human rights abus­es, population, narcotics and women’s rights. It also works with the Interna­tional Labour Organization, the World Health Organization, UNICEF, and other global welfare organizations.

SECRETARIAT

An international staff of 16,000 works for the Secretariat to carry out the day-to-day work of the United Nations, providing services to all UN councils, commissions and agencies. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary Gen­eral, who plays a key role as a spokes-person in the organization’s peace-keep- ing efforts. The Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly for a five-years-term.

18 Study the following text.

WHAT IS UNESCO?

UNESCO, the United National Educational, Scienfitic and Cultural Orga­nization, is a Specialized Agency of the United Nations.

Formed to keep a watchful eye on developments in the world and help Member States find answers to the key problems that beset our societies in the areas within its competence, UNESCO is involved in a broad range of activities. Thus the term “science” also covers areas belonging to both the social and human sciencies, and although its acronym makes no mention of communication, UNESCO plays a crucial role in fields ranging from informa­tion exchange to the establishment of communication infrastructure.

UNESCO’s Constitution says that “since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed.” Building these defences through international intellectual cooperation remains UNESCO’s prime objective.

UNESCO also contributes to the translation of certain masterpieces of world literature and the recording of traditional music from all regions of the world, and participates in the prevention of drug abuse and AIDS through educational programmes and through a centre set up to gather, assess and distribute educational material on AIDS prevention.

19 Pick a real or imaginary trouble spot in the world. Then, as the newly appointed Secretary of State, take an imaginary trip to that place. Introduce yourself to the head of that government. Tell him or her what your mission is. Write the speech you would give as the Secretary of State.

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS

20 Imagine that you have been elected president of your school’s student government. Write an inaugural speech telling how you will make your school a better place.

21 Think of the rights and guidelines you would want in

a redrafting of the Constitution, or you may want to think about a students’ constitution for your school. Write a preamble, or introduction, for your constitution.

22 Comment on the following quotations.

1. “Man is by nature a political animal.” Aristotle.