- •1. Parts of language. Grammar as a part of language
- •2. Morphology and Syntax as parts of Grammar.
- •3. Main notions of Grammar. Grammatical meaning.
- •4.Main notions of Grammar. Grammatical form
- •5.Main of Grammar. Grammatical category.
- •6. Main notions of Grammar. The morpheme.
- •7.The morphological structure of English words.
- •8.Morphological analysis of words.(смотреть вопрос 7)
- •9.Criteria of classifying words into parts of speech. Notional and functional classes of words.
- •10.The English noun as a part of speech (general characteristics).
- •11.The English noun. The category of number.
- •12.The English noun. The category of case.
- •13.The English noun. The problem of the category of gender.
- •14.The English adjective as a part of speech (general characteristics).
- •15.The English adjective. The problem of the number of forms of degrees of comparison.
- •16.The English adjective. The problem of analytical forms of comparison.
- •17. Conversion.
- •18.The English verb as a part of speech (general characteristics).
- •19.The English verb. The category of tense.
- •20.The English verb. The category of aspect.
- •Verbs denoting relations:
- •Link-verbs of the seem-type:
- •Verbs of physical perception and mental activity:
- •21.The English verb. The category of order.
- •22.The English verb. The category of voice.
- •23. The category of mood
- •24.The phrase. Principles of classification.
- •25.The phrase. Syntactic relations of words within phrases.
- •26.The sentence as a unit of syntax, its basic properties.
- •27. Principles of classification of sentences.
- •28.Principal parts of the sentence: the subject.
- •29. Principal parts of the sentence: the predicate.
- •30.The semantic structure of the sentence.
- •31.The communicative structure of the sentence. Actual sentence division.
- •32.Predication. Primary and secondary predication.
- •33.Modality and negation as categories of the sentence.
- •34.The compound sentence.
- •35.The complex sentence.
8.Morphological analysis of words.(смотреть вопрос 7)
The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.
9.Criteria of classifying words into parts of speech. Notional and functional classes of words.
Parts of speech are traditional grammatical classes of words.
Here are several criteria of words belonging to a concrete part of speech.
1) The basis for the division of words into parts of speech is their real ties with material reality. The bulk of the vocabulary consists of words denoting substances: a table, a chair, etc. Then follows a big group of process-words: to write, to speak, etc. Meaning is that which unites these words. This general meaning is called lexico-grammatical or categorical meaning of a part of speech.
e. g. From the point of view of its lexical content a book, for example, is an object of reality surrounding us; from the point of view of its grammatical value it is a representative of a class of nouns characterized by a set of definite grammatical categories.
2) Lexico-grammatical meaning of a part of speech may have its expression in a word – lexico-grammatical morphemes (stem-building elements). Thus, nouns often have the morphemes -er, -ist, -ness, -ship, -ment; verbs contain the morphemes -ize, -ify, be-, en-, -en. Adjectives often end in the suffixes -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive. So, a certain lexico-grammatical morpheme may indicate that a word belongs to a definite part of speech. Some words though are characterizes by invariability-неизменяемость (e.g. prepositions, conjunctions), so no affixes can be attached to them.
3) The third criterion according to which words are divided into parts of speech is the paradigm – a set of grammatical categories characteristic of this particular class of words.
e. g. Nouns in English have the categories of number and case. The categories of tense, voice, mood, etc. are typical of verbs. Adjectives possess the only category of degrees of comparison.
4) Speaking of functioning of parts of speech we should mention their combinability, or valency. This is the ability of the whole lexico-grammatical class of words to form combinations with words of other classes. This ability does not depend on lexical meanings of words.
5) Another important feature is the function of a part of speech in the sentence. Usually we assume that a noun occurs in the sentence in the function of a subject or an object, a verb functions as a predicate, an adjective – as an attribute, etc. Thus there are five basic principles on the basis of which scholars single out parts of speech.
Summarizing all this we can say that this classification is based on meaning, form and function. Meaning is the typical meaning of the whole class of words; by form we mean morphological characteristics of the given word class; by function we mean syntactical properties of a certain class of words. According to these three criteria words fall into notional (the noun, the adjective, the verb, the adverb, the pronoun, the numeral) and functional, or formal (the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection) parts of speech. (Some classes of words remain controversial: the stative, for example, is sometimes considered to form a separate part of speech [11, 30]). The difference between them can be described roughly as follows: notional words denote things, properties, actions, etc. and other extralinguistic phenomena while functional words denote relations connecting notional words and have no direct tie with the extralinguistic world.
According to M.Y. Blokh notional words form a big open class of "names" each having the so-called derivational paradigm of nomination of the type [2, 45]:
N → power – to empower – powerful – powerfully
V → to suppose – supposition – supposed – supposedly
A → clear – clarity – to clarify – clearly
D → out – outing – to out – outer.
The second part of the vocabulary is built up with pro-names, words that are substitutes of names (e.g. pronouns). The third part of the lexicon is formed by specifiers of names. These two groups are closed sets.