4.3. Translation on the Level of Phonemes (Graphemes)

Phoneme is a sound of spoken language, which in the written language refers to a grapheme, or a letter symbol. Phoneme or grapheme is not a carrier of independent meaning. In language it plays only a meaning distinguishing role. But, nevertheless, in translation practice there are cases, when phonemes (or graphemes) become the translation units. Phonemes of SL are replaced by phonemes which are the closest to them in articulation and acoustic properties in the TL (or graphemes in the SL are replaced by the graphemes in the TL, which convey the identical sounds). For example, in the English name Ruth it is possible to pick up to each phoneme the ones closest in articulation and sounding in Ukrainian. In Ukrainian it will sound like Рут, in Russian — Руфь. Greek letter beta [], read differently depending on the place in a word, therefore different spelling and pronunciation are observed in languages: Basil — Василь, Benjamin — Вен’ямін, Martha — Марта and Марфа.

To each phoneme of the outgoing word we find an equivalent in phonemic storage of Ukrainian, in other words, here a phoneme comes forward as a translation unit.

The type of translation, where the correlation between units of SL and TL is established on the level of phonemes, is called transcription.

In case, when the correlation is established on the level of graphemes, i.e. of the graphic form or spelling of an outgoing word, and not of its pronunciation, then we speak about transliteration.

For example, a proper name Lincoln is transliterated in Ukrainian as [Лінкольн]. We just substitute the English graphemes by the Ukrainian ones; we transliterate its graphic form, (because if we use transcription, then this word will look like ['lINkqn], because it sounds in English just like this).

It should be noted, that the pure use of only the transcription or transliteration is rare in language practice. As a rule, combination or mixed variants of both devices occur. Consequently, the English surname “Newton”, which sounds and is written as „Ньютон“, combines in oneself both transcription and transliteration. Because the transcription of the word is „Ньютен“ ['njHtqn], and transliteration in its pure form is „Невтон“ (in his ode Lomonosov calls the talented Russian youth as „быстрые разумом Невтоны“).

On the level of phonemes (graphemes) we translate personal names, geographical names, names of celestial bodies, organizations, hotels, restaurants, newspapers, magazines, steamers, aircraft, as well as special terms of different scientific domains — lately these are Computer Sciences: трафік, хост, інтерфейс, сервер, сканер, картридж, опція, бут, кеш, в’юер, провайдер, мультимедія, etc. The translator lacking the ready made equivalents is forced to create “occasional” equivalents, and to resort to transcription/transliteration (non-experts propose the words like „делете“, „ескапе“ having their cut prototypes on a keyboard “Esc.” and “Del.”, etc.), where phoneme becomes the unit of translation.

Regarding geographical names, one should be careful here: „Hook Head“ is translated as „Хук Хед“ (not „Гачкоподібна голова“), but “Cape of Good Hope“ is translated as „Мис Доброї Надії“. Similarly, the names of organizations are translated by means of transcription/transliteration fully or partially, but in both cases consulting the related reference books to find the precedent is required:

British Petroleum — Брітіш Петролеум, United States Steel Corporation — ЮССК, Kamsley Newspaper Limited — Газетний концерн (трест) Кемзлі.

Celestial bodies are transcribed, but constellation names, signs of the zodiac are translated: Діва —Virgin, Лев — Lion, Терези — Libra.

In geographical names hyphens are commonly used in translation:

Stratford on Avon — Стретфорд-он-Ейвон.

German poet Heine is rendered as Гейне, instead of Хайне, Heinrich — Генріх, instead of Хайнрішь.

Ships (spaceships, including) Apollo, Endeavor, Discoverer are translated as Аполло, Індевор, Дискаверер (not „Дослідник“), because nomination, and not interpretation of the meaning are significant in the given case.

There are also exceptions in translating English personal names. Names George, Charles, William, James in Ukrainian refer to Джордж, Чарльз, Вільям (Уїльям), Джеймс. But when these names mean the English and other kings, then they are interpreted as Георг, Карл, Вільгельм and Яков (William the Conqueror — Вільгельм Завойов­ник, James Stuart — Яков Стюарт, etc.). English names Abraham, Isaac, Moses are interpreted as Абрахам, Айзек, Мозес, but when they mean biblical characters, then they must be translated as Аврам, Ісак, Мойсей.

Sometimes a phoneme is used as carrier of a specific semantic information. In this case a phoneme or grapheme is transformed into the word with a certain meaning:

Veni, vidi, vici — прийшов, побачив, переміг.

My husband lives under the law of three Т (and we know, what it means without deciphering): Телевізор, Тахта, Тапочки.

Students live under the law of three З: Зазубрив, Здав, Забув.

Americans very well know the law of three R’s:

A recent study has shown that 15% of high school graduates in America today are functionally illiterate; they lack the basic reading, writing and arithmetic skills to perform the simple tasks… It is now felt that the new teaching methods and curriculum changes that were introduced at that time have failed miserably. Now, they say, is the time for reform and a return to the basics of three R’s.

In spoken variant the first two words are pronounced with initial sound [r] and the word “arithmetic“ has colloquial variant “’rithmetic“.

One more very important observation: phonetic structure of words plays an extremely important role in poetry and really remains a very complicated problem for translators. All the poets and writers pay extraordinary attention to the phonetic organization of their works. Repetitions and combinations of certain vowels or consonants create a specific atmosphere of a poetic work — mystic fear (e.g.: vowels O, U), horror, nostalgia, gladness, cheerfulness, etc. Let us recall a tongue-twister or rapid speech: Карл у Клари вкрав корали. In Edgar Po’s mystic poem “Black raven” („Чорний ворон“) where there are many hissing consonants h, sh as well as ch and r — which say for themselves which are correctly preserved in the Russian translation).

Russian poet Vysotsky V. was successful in playing upon sounds in his poems, their rhythmic repetitions being impressive: „Небосвод, кол-лло-кол-лла-ми раскол-лло-тый…“.

In Ed. Po’s “Chime” everything is constructed on onomatopoeia. Poem charms with richness of assonance, alliterations or initial rhymes e, vocabulary and phrasal repetitions, rhythmic combinations.

Hear the sledges with the bells, —

Silver bells!

What a world of merriment their melody foretells.

How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,

In the icy air of night!

While the stars that over-sprinkle

All the heavens, seem to twinkle

With a crystalline delight.

Keeping time, time, time,

In a sort of Runic rhyme,

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells

From the bells, bells, bells, bells,

Bells, bells, bells, —

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.

This chime, imitation of sounds, constantly accompanies every translator, who dares translate it. In 1905 Bryusov transferred the phonetic sounding of the Po’s poem as well as its basic images: motion of sledges, frosty air, star sky, allegory of time:

Внемлешь санок тонким звонам, Звонам серебра? Что за мир веселий предвещает их игра? Внемлешь звонам, звонам, звонам В льдистом воздухе ночном, Под звездистым небосклоном, В свете тысяч искр, зажженном Кристаллическим огнем, — С ритмом верным, верным, верным, Словно строфы саг размерным, С перезвякиваньем мягким, с сонным отзывом времен, Звон, звон, звон, звон, звон, звон, звон, Звон, звон, звон, Бубенцов скользящих санок многозвучный перезвон.

For comparison there is one more translation of V. V. Koptilov is proposed:

Слухай санок передзвін — Срібний дзвін! Скільки сміху, скільки світла нам віщує він! Тільки дінь, дінь, дінь У ясну морозну ніч! Зорі сяють у глибінь, Промінь лине в темну тінь І летить до наших віч. Відгомони лун, Наче строфи давніх рун, У музичнім передзвоні стрівся з тоном Тон без змін. Слухай дзвін і знову дзвін, Дзвін, дзвін, дзвін — Мелодійний і веселий передзвін.

„Осіння пісня“ by the French poet Verlen is very melodious, refined, ideal, with the sound “o” repeated many times to create the atmosphere of grief and sorrow:

Les sanglots longs Des violons De l’automne Blessent mon cœur D’une langueur Monotone…

Sounds impart melancholy, nostalgia, and feeling of untimely death.

Below there is a translation of Tereshchenko:

Скорбне ридання Скрипок до рання, Пісня осіння — Серце вражає, Втомно гойдає, Мов голосіння.

Poem is constructed on sounds of repetition, which create a unique atmosphere of dying nature versus death of a human. The poet was grieving over his own departure. Here is the translation of N. Minsky (1903):

Осенний стон — Протяжный звон, Звон похоронный — В душе больной Звучит струной Неугомонной.

F. Sologub (1923) has found exactly the same words, the same method of their linking, and the same unsurpassed melodiousness:

О, струнный звон, Осенний стон, Томный, скучный. В душе больной Напев ночной Однозвучный.

Children love the so called desemantisized words, words without any meaning, just a set of sounds, and this phenomenon is observed in all the nations. They make up just brilliant games starting from meaningless hand-count, which has its specific and important purpose — to develop their articulation apparatus, improve memory through learning, stir up imagination, creativity, etc.:

Эныки, бэныки, ели вареники…

Гоп, цоп, сайды, брайды, рита, У малайды, брайды, рита У мальчишки бришки, рита У малайды, гоп-цоп.

Or the English children’s rhyme:

Hickory, dickory, dock!

The mouse ran up the clock,

The clock struck one,

The mouse ran down.

Hickory, dickory, dock!

Tongue-twisters, sputters are very popular among children and their number is countless:

Never trouble trouble

Till trouble troubles you.

It only doubles trouble,

And troubles others too.

Two translations of the rhyme are proposed and you are invited to choose the better variant of translation:

Морока	Мало клопоту
Не варті клопоту турботи,	Хто клопочеться про клопіт,
Поки тобі не припечуть:	Коли клопіт спочиває,
Турбота лиш подвоїть клопіт,	Має той подвійний клопіт,
Від нього й інші не втечуть.	Інші також клопіт мають.

The level of phonemes should not be underestimated, otherwise something very marvellous and charming will be lacking in the translations of poetry.