Cell
Ex. 1. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:
-
bacterium, n. (sing.)
pl. bacteria
adj. bacterial
[ ]
бактерия
Bacteria are cellular organisms.
biochemistry, n.
adj. biochemical
биохимия
cell, n.
adj. cellular,
e.g. unicellular, multicellular
клетка
The cell is the smallest structural unit in living organisms.
divide, v.
n. division
делить, разделять
Cells are produced from each other by division.
function, n.
v. function
adj. functional
функция
Scientists study cells to learn more about basic functions of living beings.
hereditary, adj.
n. heredity
наследственный
Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during division.
metabolism, n.
adj. metabolic
метаболизм
Cell metabolism is a process when individual cells produce nutrient molecules.
microscope, n.
adj. microscopic
микроскоп
It is impossible to observe cells without powerful microscope.
occur, v.
n. occurrence
syn. appear
случаться, происходить
Cells do not occur by spontaneous generation.
reproduction, n.
v. reproduce
adj. reproductive
воспроизводство
The cell is a self-maintaining structure: it can take in nutrients, convert the nutrients into energy and reproduce itself.
structure, n.
adj. structural
структура
Cell is the smallest living biological structure.
virus, n.
adj. viral
вирус
Viruses are not made up of cells.
Ex. 2. Memorize the verbs to be used:
to appear
to contain
to determine
to divide
to observe
to accept
to function
to reproduce
to convert
to maintain
Ex. 3. Read the following word combinations, try to memorize their translation. Pay attention to the prepositions used with the verbs.
to come from – быть родом из, происходить откуда-либо (syn. to originate from)
to compare smth. to smth. – сравнивать ч-л. с ч-л.
to compose smth. – входить в состав ч-л, составлять ч-л. (syn. to constitute, to make up).
to be composed of smth. – состоять из ч-л., быть составленным, (syn. to be made up of smth, to consist of smth.)
to be based on (upon) smth. – быть основанным на ч-л.
to depend on (upon) smth. – зависеть от ч-л.
to provide information about smth. – предоставлять информацию о ч-л.
Make up your own sentences with these word combinations. Try to use as many of them as possible.
Ex. 4. Read and translate the following sentences:
Daughter cells come from the mother cell by division.
The results of the observation under the microscope provided more concrete information about the structure of the cell.
The functioning of the cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules.
Recent investigations in the cell theory are based upon the previous discoveries and facts.
Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur normally compose organic biomolecules.
All living organisms, from microbes to mammals, are composed of chemical substances from both inorganic and organic world.
Ex. 5. Practice reading and translating the following words with prefixes bio- and micro-:
Bioenergy, biology, biolysis, biophysics, biogenesis, bioplasm, biosis, biosynthesis, biochemistry, biomolecule, biotics.
Microbe, microelement, microorganism, micrography, microbiology, microcirculation, microstructure.
Ex. 6. Read the text and write out three most important issues from it:
The cell is defined as the structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism and is sometimes called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular.
The word “cell” comes from the Latin “cellula” which means “a small room”. This descriptive name for the smallest living biological structure was first chosen by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cork cells through his microscope and compared them to small rooms monks lived in.
The cell theory was developed much later in 1839 by Matthias Jacob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells. Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden summarized the results of their observations into three conclusions about cells which constitute classic cell theory:
All living things are composed of cells.
Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things.
Cells are formed byfree-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous generation).
We know today that the first two statements are correct, but the third is clearly wrong. The correct interpretation of the third statement about the cell formation was finally formulated by Rudolph Virchow in 1858: “All cells are produced from other cells”.
Modern cell theory is based upon previous observations and facts. The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (spontaneous generation does not occur).
Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
All known living things are made up of cells.
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.
The cell theory is true for all living things, no matter how big or small, or how simple or complex. Since cells are common to all living things, they can provide information about all life. And because all cells come from other cells, scientists can study them to learn about growth, reproduction, and all other functions of living beings. However, there are two recognized exceptions to this theory, which are as follows:
Viruses are considered by some to be alive, yet they are not made up of cells.
The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell.
Ex.7. Answer the questions using the following expressions in your answers:
to be based on, to depend on, to compare to, to compose, to be composed of, to observe, to contain.
What does the word ‘cell’ mean? Where does it come from?
Why did Robert Hooke choose the word ‘cell’ to describe the smallest living structure?
Who were the founders of classic cell theory?
What is modern cell theory based on?
What is the difference between classic and modern cell theory?
Why is the cell theory important to study?
What are the exceptions to the cell theory?
Ex. 8. Match the words and their synonyms, find them in the text and state in what situations they are used:
To consist, to define, to transfer, to come from, to constitute, to include, to occur, to be made up of, to determine, to originate, to compose, to be composed, to pass, to contain, to appear, to make up, to be produced.
Ex. 9. Translate the passage from the text (in writing) starting with the words “Modern cell theory is based on…” up to “The first cell did not originate from a pre-existing cell”.
Ex. 10. Ask all possible questions to the following sentences:
The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of all known living organisms.
The cell theory states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells.
Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
Cells can provide information about growth, reproduction, and all other functions of living beings.
There are two recognized exceptions to the cell theory.
Ex. 11. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:
Т. Шванн и М. Шлейден обобщили знания о клетке и сформулировали основные положения классической клеточной теории.
Р. Вирхов открыл, что каждая новая клетка происходит только от материнской клетки в результате ее деления.
Живые организмы могут быть одноклеточными и многоклеточными.
Материнская клетка передает генетическую информацию дочерним клеткам в процессе деления.
Клеточная теория может объяснить многие функции живых организмов.
Ex. 12. Retell the text considering the following issues:
Definition of the cell. Origin and explanation of the term.
Classic cell theory. Founders and principal statements.
Modern cell theory. Its generally accepted statements.
Importance of the cell theory. Recognized exceptions.
Ex. 13. Check your memory and try to recall the translation of the following verbs:
to convert, to maintain, to accept, to determine, to observe, to convert, to divide.
Structure of cell
Ex. 1. Read the following words, pay attention to their pronunciation:
-
chromosome, n.
хромосома
The nucleus contains chromosomes of the cell.
cytoplasm, n.
цитоплазма
The nucleus is surrounded by cytoplasm.
destruct, v.
adj. destructive
n. destruction
разрушать
Lysosomes can destruct the cell.
digest, v.
adj. digestive
n. digestion
перерабатывать пищу, переваривать
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes.
DNA, (deoxyribonucleic acid)
ДНК
DNA contains genetic information of the cell.
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) , n.
эндоплазматическая сеть (ЭПС)
The endoplasmic reticulum is the transport network for different molecules.
environment, n.
adj. environmental
окружающая среда
The cell membrane separates the interior of the cell from its surrounding environment.
Golgi apparatus, n.
аппарат Гольджи
The Golgi apparatus is an organelle that takes part in modifying, sorting, and packaging of macromolecules.
layer, n.
слой
lipid, n.
жир
The plasma membrane consists of a double layer of lipids.
lysosome, n.
лизосома
Lysosomes are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to destroy the cell.
membrane, n.
adj. membraneous
мембрана, оболочка
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane.
mitochondrium, n. sing.
pl. mitochondria
митохондрия
Mitochondria are the energy center of the cell.
organelle, n.
органелла
The most important organelles of the cell are the nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes and lysosomes.
permeable, adj.
проницаемый
The plasma membrane of the cell is 'semi-permeable'.
protein, n.
белок
Ribosomes transform RNA into protein.
replication, n.
v. replicate
удвоение, репликация
The nucleus is the place where DNA replication occurs.
ribosome, n.
рибосома
The ribosome is a large complex, composed of many molecules.
RNA, or ribonucleic acid
РНК
The nucleus is the place where RNA synthesis occurs.
synthesis, n.
v. synthesize
adj. synthetic
синтез
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) transports synthesized proteins.
viscous, adj.
n. viscosity
вязкий
The cytoplasm is a viscous cell substance.
Ex. 2. Memorize the verbs to be used:
to perform
to contain
to adapt
to carry out
to enclose
to house
to store
to transmit
to regulate
to isolate
to protect
to damage
to separate
to surround
Ex. 3. Practice reading and translating the following words with the prefix ‘semi-’ and ‘bi-’:
bicarbonate, semi-permeable, semi-transparent, bichloride, biconcave, semiconductor, bifurcation, binary, semi-fluid, bilateral.
Ex. 4. Read and translate the following word-combinations:
vital function
higher organism
specialized subunit
cell division
nuclear envelope