Devices Based on the Interaction of Logical and Contextual Meanings

Metaphor. The term is derived rom Greek metaphora meaning transference (μεταφερω, μεταφορα). Interaction between logical and contextual meanings of words should have some basis without which it can’t be realized. This basis is an existing likeness between two objects however this likeness may not be existing but supposed. Metaphor is a shift of meaning based on the association of similarity or affinity. Metaphors may not only be expressed by nouns, but by any part of speech. They not only name the object but also characterize it and do it in a vivid expressive way. Important is that there should be no actual connection between the two objects in reality like what we have in metonymy. Thus the metaphor filmstar is based on the identity of features: both are outstanding, conspicuous, seen by everyone, known to all, placed higher than others. Typically, metaphors with the course of time lose their original expressiveness and turn into dead metaphors which may also be called trite metaphors. Such are the teeth of a saw, the head of a cabbage, the story goes, the foot of the mountain, etc.

A metaphor, to be perceived as such, needs at least a minimum context. 19^th century prudish ladies of Boston even replaced the metaphor legs of a piano by a euphemism limb of a piano. And their own legs were called benders, body was named waist.

The stylistic metaphor, which is always expressive, bright and vivid, is coined by the fancy of the speaker or writer. Sometimes metaphors may exceed the boundaries of just one word.

The doctor wrapped himself in a mist of words. (Kipling)

Metaphors can be simple and sustained or prolonged. The latter case is in fact a number of metaphors connected and associated with one main image.

In November a cold unseen stranger whom the doctors called pneumonia stoked about the colony, touching one here and one there with icy fingers. (O. Henry)

Personification. Personification is a variety of metaphor, in which inanimate objects are shown as if they were human beings with such attributes as thought, speech, feeling, action.

How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of Youth, stolen on his wing my three and twentieth year. (Milton)

There are certain formal signs of personification, such as:

• the use of he/she pronouns with reference to lifeless objects but with an exception of the cases habitual (ships, countries)

• direct address to the object as if it is able to perceive the human speech

Oh, stretch thy reign, fair peace! From shore to shore

till conquest cease and slavery be no more. (A. Pope)

• capitalization of nouns

No sleep till Morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet

To chase the glowing hours with flying feet (Byron)

Metonymy. This term is derived from Greek metonymia meaning changing of name. Metonymy is another type of interaction between logical and contextual logical meanings, based on the association between two concepts: the object implied and the object named. Their combination may take different forms which are as follows:

1. the result is used to name the cause

Grey hair is not always respected.

2. the cause used for the result

The author lived by his pen only.

3. the symbol for the thing signified

The crown had to yield to the demands of the people.

4. the feature for its bearer

A bonnet and a dress floated down the street.

Watching the skirts you start to flirt.

5. the tool for the action

Give every man thy ear, few thy voice.

6. the container for the thing contained, or contrary

The kettle is boiling.

The wood sings.

The gallery applauded.

7. an abstract notion for a concrete one, or contrary

Labor demonstrated in the streets.

8. material for the thing made of it

A shower of lead fell on the trenches.

9. the name of the creator for his creation

Have you ever read Shakespeare in the original?

He’s fond of Byron.

Synecdoche. It is a particular case of metonymy, in which part is used for the whole or the singular for the plural. Some scholars say that it is the simplest type of metonymy.

All hands on deck.

Generic singular is the type of synecdoche in which the singular form is used to denote a class.

The student id expected to know…

The opposite type of synecdoche is the following.

Reading books when I’m talking to you?

Irony. From Greek ειρωνεια meaning hidden mockery. It is another device based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual. The important difference of irony from metaphor and metonymy is that here both meanings stand in opposition to each other.

It must be delightful to find yourself in a foreign country without a penny in the pocket.

The stylistic function of irony is normally criticism, so it mustn’t be confused with humor, whose main function is not criticism but amusement. The sphere of application of irony are those works, in which some psychological or social phenomenon is treated. Two principle types of irony are usually singled out:

1. The first one represents utterances in which the ironical sense is evident to any native speaker. This type is made antiphrasis.

A fine friend you are.

2. The second type is represented by the majority of examples and here the utterance can be understood both literally and ironically. To make such cases of irony evident, the author may use inverted commas or italics. In oral speech we may come across additional means such as intonation, facial expression, gestures, etc.

He’s a rich man.

On the whole, irony is used for critical evaluation of objects, but there also exist opposite examples, which are however few.

clever bastard

tough son of a bitch

Lecture 2.2 Devices Based on the Interaction of Logical and Nominal Meanings. Devices Based on the Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meanings

Antonomasia. From Greek “naming instead”. This device is based on the simultaneous realization of two lexical meanings, which normally do not overlap in speech. There are the following types of antonomasia singled out by scholars:

1. name of a famous personality for a characteristic feature

He is the Napoleon of crime

2. name of a place for the event which happened there

Pearl Harbor as a symbol of bitter defeat.

3. name of the establishment for the policy pursued by it

Wall Street, the White House, the Pentagon, Moscow

4. geographical names used as common nouns for the denotation of things originating from there

china, champagne, boston (fabric), astrakhan (каракуль), etc.

5. names after their inventors

ohm, diesel, sandwich, macintosh, etc.

Two other principal types of antonomasia are:

1. cases based on the interaction between the nominal and contextual logical meanings;

2. those based on the interaction of logical and contextual nominal meanings.

Number one can be illustrated by those proper nouns used as common ones (Othello, Don Juan). This type is highly trite as a result of long usage a proper noun has every reason to become totally common. The fact which prevents this process may be the use of the same noun in a piece of literature.

Derrick is high tower of an oil-producing device but it was name of an English hangman of Elizabethan times.

Class two may be illustrated by any common noun used as a proper one.

Mr. Mustard (“Abbey Road” by the Beatles), Rocky Raccoon, etc.

Sometimes antonomasia helps make abstract notions concrete.

You need the help of doctor Rest, doctor Diet and doctor Fresh Air.

Antonomasia may also consist of several words or a complete phrase.

Mr. Know-It-All (г-н Всезнайка)

Mr. What’s-Your-Name Как-Вас-Там?