2.3 Borrowed, or Loan, Lexemes

When one language takes lexical units from other languages, we speak of borrowings or loan lexemes. The English language is an insatiable borrower. “Over 350 languages are on record as sources of its present-day vocabulary, and the locations of contact are found all over the world” (Crystal, 2003, p.126). Loan lexemes can be classified according to the following characteristics, either according to the source of borrowing or according to the degree of assimilation.

According to the sources of borrowing, loan words are classified as borrowings of Celtic origin, Latin loans, Scandinavian borrowings, loans from German and Dutch, borrowings from French, Slavic, Hungarian, Turkish, and so on. Celtic influence on the English language is minor. This may be explained by the fact that Celtic communities were destroyed or pushed back to the areas of Cornwall, Wales, Cumbria, and the Scottish borders. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that “at Andredesceaster or Pevensey a deadly struggle occurred between the native population and the newcomers and that not a single Briton was left alive” (Baugh & Cable, 1978, p.72). Apparently, large numbers of the defeated fled to the West. A whole cluster of Celtic place-names exist in the northeastern corner of Dorcetshire. Id. at 73. It is also likely that Anglo-Saxons married Celtic women. At least there was some contact between these two peoples—Anglo-Saxons and the Celts. Some words that survived into Modern English are the following: crag, cumb (deep valley), carr (rock), dunn (dun, grey), bald, down, glen, druid, bard, cradle, and others (The Living Webster, 1977). A few place-names are believed to be of Celtic origin. They include the river names such as Thames, Avon, Don, Exe, Usk, and Wye. Town names include Dover (water), Eccles (church), and Bray (hill) (Crystal, 2003, p. 8).

2.3.1 Borrowings from Latin

The first large influx of foreign borrowings into English came with the Latin of the missionaries, as well as through cultural and trade relations with the continent. Latin was the official language of the Christian church, and consequently the spread of Christianity was accompanied by a new period of Latin borrowings. These words were associated with church and religious rituals, e.g., priest (L. presbyter), monk (L. monachus), nun (L. nonna), candle (L. candela). Scholarly terms were also borrowed, e.g., school (L. schola), and so are such words as scholar (L. scholar) and magister (L. magister). Some loans were associated with plants and animals, such as oak (L. quercus), pine (L.pinus), maple (L.acer), rose (L. rosa), lily (L. lilium), orchid (L. amerorchis rotundifolia), a white-tailed deer (L.odocoileus virginianus), raccoon (L.procyon lotor), and grey wolf (L.canis lupus). Others were associated with food, vessels, and household items, e.g., kitchen, cheese, kettle, cup, plum, wine, lettuce, chair, knife (The Living Webster, 1977). Joseph Williams states that the proportion of Latin borrowings during this period would roughly be as follows: “plants and animals, 30%; food, vessels, and household items, 20%; buildings and settlements, 12%; dress, 12%: military legal, 9%; religious, scholarly, 3%; miscellaneous, 5%” (1975, p.57).

sphereLatinmeaningOld EnglishModern EnglcommerceVinum

caupones

monetaWine

tavern keeper

coinWine

cheap

mintEveryday lifeCista

caseus

catillusChest

cheese

bowlChest

cheese

kettleAgricultural productsPiru

prunum

pisumPear

plum

peaPear

plum

peafacillitiesVallum

castraFence

campWall

(Lan)caster

(Glou)cester

(Man)ches

The first layer of Latin borrowings were nominations of different objects of everyday life or different spheres of life.

The second were words connected with relegion which came with christianity in VI and VII centuries.