5.9 Sense Relations

Regarding their meanings, words and phrases can enter into a variety of sense relations with other words and phrases in the language. “The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language” (Hurford, Heasley, & Smith, 2010, p. 29). These sense relations are synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, and hyponymy.

5.9.1 Similarity of Sense

The first sense relation is synonymy. This term comes from the Greek, indicating ‘likeness of meaning.’ Synonyms are lexemes which have the same sense; however, there may not be perfect synonyms, which could substitute each other in all contexts. There may be slight differences between a pair of synonyms. There are dialect differences; for example, autumn and fall are synonymous, but the former is used in the British English, while the latter belongs to the American English. Other examples are billfold (Am.)--wallet (Br.), drapes (Am.)--curtains (Br.), sidewalk (Am.)--pavement (Br.), and others. Synonyms can be differentiated stylistically; for instance, the following lexemes are synonymous: psychotic, psychopathic, demented, insane, deranged, lunatic, crazy, and mad—they all refer to serious disturbances in mind. Psychotic, psychopathic, demented, deranged, and insane can be used in a formal setting; however, mad, crazy, and lunatic may be used informally. Other examples of stylistically different synonyms are astonished—gobsmacked , crash—prang, drunk—sloshed, heart—ticker, insane—barmy, and others. There may also be collocational differences. The following adjectives-- strong, hardy, muscular, powerful, sturdy, and tough-- are synonymous, but they can collocate with only certain lexemes; for example, strong pertains to what has force or to what is rugged in construction or build: a strong headwind, a strong body, and a strong workbench. It can also apply to what is vigorous, intense, vivid, or persuasive: a strong government, a strong argument, strong tea, strong colors, and a strong suspicion. The adjective powerful may appear in combination: a powerful nuclear bomb and a powerful turbine. Muscular is limited in combination; it can occur in combination of a muscular athlete and others, suggesting a well-built body. Sturdy and hardy are restricted to something which is durable and resistant: a sturdy footbridge, a hardy species of corn, and a hardy life. The adjective tough appears in combinations with recruits and problem: a tough problem and tough recruits. There may also be differences in connotation. A pair of words may share a denotational meaning, but their connotational meanings are different, e.g., persuade is a more general term, but coax, cajole, and wheedle add the connotation of gentleness, tact, and even artfulness.

Howard Jackson and Etienne Zй Amvela differentiate between strict, or absolute, and loose synonymy. They state that some synonyms are “interchangeable in all their possible contexts” (p.108). The speaker may have a free choice in their use, with no effect on the meaning, e.g., homeland—motherland. All the linguists agree that strict synonyms create unnecessary redundancy in the language; therefore, one of the strict synonyms may undergo some semantic changes. When a Scandinavian lexeme sky was borrowed, it came into competition with the existing native lexeme heaven. In the course of language development, heaven narrowed its meaning to denote a spiritual concept, while sky denotes the physical notion.

When we speak of synonymy, we mean various degrees of loose synonyms. As we mentioned earlier, almost all the synonyms differ from each other in their shades of meaning, whether it is dialectal or stylistic. Loose synonyms cannot replace each other because they share different contexts, and their meanings diverge, at least slightly. Many linguists argue that it would be inefficient for a language to have strict synonyms where meanings are absolutely identical in all contexts. Accuracy of meaning would be improved, but nuance and subtlety would be sacrificed.