Unit 11. Human rights

1. Answer the following questions before reading the text:

a) What international organisations aimed to control how individual governments observe human rights do you know? How far can their jurisdiction extend?

b) Name a few countries where human rights are violated or ignored.

2. Read and translate the text. Pay special attention to legal terms.

In 1960, Peter Benenson, a British lawyer, read about two students who had been sentenced to seven years' imprisonment for drinking a toast to freedom during the Salazar dictatorship in Portugal. He joined with others to start a campaign for prisoners of conscience - people who had never used or advocated violence and were simply in prison because of their political or religious beliefs. This was the beginning of Amnesty International, the largest of many organisations in the world which put pressure on governments to observe human rights. By gathering information, creating publicity and writing letters, Amnesty has helped to speed up the release of such prisoners all over the world. It also campaigns for fair trials for political prisoners, and end to torture and inhumane treatment, and the abolition of death penalty. Amnesty and other groups, such as the Anti-Slavery Society and Index of Censorship, have helped to make more and more people aware of the concept of human rights - rights that go beyond the laws of one country.

Yet not everyone agrees that merely being born as a human being entitle; someone to certain freedoms and treatment, and those who do agree have differ opinions as to what these rights are. Many of the rights of citizens are consider human rights. What needs to be considered here more than the nature of such rights is to whom they apply? A constitutional right is one which a state guarantees to if own citizens and, sometimes, to foreigners who are within its jurisdiction. But a human right is one to which people all over the world are entitled, whatever the nationality and wherever they live.

Human rights organisations argue that basic moral standards should not depend upon where a person happens to live, especially since many governments of the world do not have popular political support among their citizens. Morality legality become connected when governments violate their own constitutions their policies cause their citizens to flee over the border into other countries. Moreover, in purely legal terms, most countries of the world have international agreements concerning the treatment of individuals.

Two examples of such agreements are the Universal Declaration of Нuman Rights (UDHR), adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948 without a dissentinj1 vote, and the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted in 1966. Article 1 of the UDHR declares that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and article 2 states that entitlement to rights does not depend upon race, colour, sex, language, religion or any other differences among people. Further articles refer to specific rights, such as freedom from slavery (Article 4), torture and cruel punishment (5), and arbitrary arrest and detention (9); the right to a fair, independent and public hearing of a criminal charge (10); the right to own property and to choose employment (17.23); and the right to express one's opinions (19) and to take part peacefully in assemblies (20). The 1966 ICCPR is not as comprehensive as the UNHR 1948, but is more important because it carries the force of a treaty obligation. Among other things it has provisions about racial and sexual equality (2); torture and slavery (7 & 8); freedom of movement (12); and freedom of thought, conscience and religion (17). However, only half of the members of the United Nations have so far signed the convention and only 34 countries have agreed to an Optional Protocol which allows individuals to seek redress in a court of law against violations of the Convention.

The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) was first adopted in 1950 and has now been signed by every country of Western Europe. Individual citizens of these countries have the right to bring a complaint before the European Commission if they think their government has broken the convention. If the Commission agrees, it may try to persuade the country in question to rectify the breach, or it may refer the matter to the European Court of Human Rights, which has the right to order a change of law in that country. Covering countries with similar cultures and economic conditions, the ECHR is more practical than many international human rights agreements. However, individual governments still manage to delay making changes to their laws by claiming special national interests.

When the law of a country violates human rights, groups like Amnesty International protest to the government on moral grounds. But whenever possible, legal arguments are also used - references to the constitution of the country itself and to any relevant international agreements which its government has signed. But despite the development of legally binding national and international conventions, millions of people in the world still do not enjoy human rights.

3. Consult a dictionary. Transcribe and translate the following words. Use them in sentences of your own:

assembly

arbitrary

comprehensive

complaint

conscience

delay

declare

detention

dissent

entitlement

persuade

property

reference

torture

violate

4. Paraphrase or explain the following words and phrases:

1 to use or advocate violence

2 basic moral standards

3 to flee over the border;

4 adopted without a dissenting vote;

5 arbitrary arrest and detention;

6 to observe human rights;

7 to seek a redress in a court of law;

8 to carry a force of a treaty obligation;

9 to bring a complaint before the European Commission;

10 equal in dignity and rights;

11 rights that go beyond the laws of any country;

12 to create publicity;

13 to rectify a breach;

14 to claim special national interests;

15 to put pressure on governments;

16 legally binding national and international conventions;

17 fair, independent and open hearing of a criminal charge.

5. Paraphrase the following using grammar constructions indicated in the brackets:

1. Amnesty International is one of many organisations which put pressure OB, governments to observe human rights. Everyone knows it. (Subjective infinitive complex)

2. Many prisoners of conscience are free now. Amnesty International helped them, (conditional sentence)

3. A professor asked his students: "When was the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted?" (Indirect question)

4. Organisations protecting human rights insist that prisoners of conscience should be released. (gerundial complex)

5. Amnesty International helps to speed up the release of political prisoners thus it promotes the concept of human rights all over the world. (Participle)

6. Transcribe and learn the enlisted legal terms:

detention; a court of law; imprisonment; to be sentenced; prisoner of conscience; trial; death penalty; jurisdiction; torture and inhumane treatment; rights of citizens; human rights; legally binding.

7. Find word-equivalents in the text to the following definitions:

1. An international agreement in writing between two or more states.

2. The process of examining and deciding a civil or criminal case before a court.

3. To state in the judgement of a criminal court what punishment is to be given to a person convicted of a crime

4. A rule or condition in a statute, contract, etc.

5. A method of punishing criminals by taking away their liberty.

6. A formal accusation of a crime usually made by the police.

8. Read the following extract from The European Convention on Human Rights (1950). Fill in the blanks with prepositions.

Article 7.

1. No one shall be held guilty __ any criminal offence __ account __ any act or omission which did not constitute a criminal offence the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable __ the time the criminal offence was committed.

2. This Article shall not prejudice the trial and punishment__ any person __ any act or omission which __ the time when it was committed, was criminal according __ the general principles __ law recognised __ civilized nations.

Article 8.

1. Everyone has the right __ respect __ his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.

2. There shall be no interference __ a public authority __ the exercise __ his life except such as is __ accordance __ the law and is necessary __ a democratic society __ the interests __ national security, public safety or the economic well-being __ the country, __ the prevention __ disorder or crime, __ the protection __ health or morals, or __ the protection __ the rights or freedoms __ others.

Article 9.

1. Everyone has the right __ freedom __ thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or__ community ___ others and __ public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, __ worship, teaching, practice and observance.

2. Freedom __ manifest one's religion or beliefs shall be subject only __ such limitations as are prescribed __ law and are necessary __ a democratic society __ the interests __ public safety, __ the protection __ public order, health or morals, or the protection __ the rights or freedoms others.

9. Prepare paragraphs 2 and 3of the text «Human Rights» for control reading. Work with a partner. Express your opinion concerning matters touched in these paragraphs. Agree or disagree with your partner using constructions so do I; neither am I, etc.

10. Make a written translation of the following text, retell it.

Most of the law in the world is made by individual governments for their own people. But human rights transcend political divisions. They are basic minimum standards of freedom and security for all. When governments fail to meet these standards, they are criticised by their own citizens, individuals in other countries, and even by foreign governments. Alleging human rights violations, some countries have imposed economic sanctions against others. Many countries have restricted trade to South Africa because of its policy of apartheid. Human rights have been cited as a reason for military interventions against foreign countries - for example by the Indians in former East Pakistan, the Vietnamese in Cambodia - although there were undoubtedly other reasons for such interventions.

11. Discussion.

What in your opinion are the fundamental rights and liberties to which every human being should be entitled?

12. Legal terms to be memorised:

prison; prisoner; imprison; imprisonment

prisoner of conscience

prisoner of war

political prisoner;

prison-breaking

to be sentenced to strict imprisonment (to life imprisonment, to four years imprisonmem

human rights

human rights violations

human rights agreement(s)

to observe human rights

to enjoy human rights

capital punishment/ death penalty

freedom of thought (conscience, faith)

the right to a fair, independent and public hearing (of a criminal charge)

to cite as a reason

to break a convention j

to rectify the breach

to seek a redress in a court of law

to impose economic sanctions (on)