In this unit you are:

• to learn the following terms:

Verb Simple verb Derivative verb Compound verb Composite verb Terminative verb Durative verbs Actional verbs

Statal (stative) verbs Transitive verbs Intransitive verbs Notional verbs Functional verbs Link verbs Auxiliary verbs

• to be able to:

1) to classify verbs according to their morphological composition;

2) to identify its main grammatical categories;

3) to differentiate between functional and notional verbs;

4) to use statal and dynamic verbs.

Part a. Theoretical Material

The Verb. The Morphological Composition

Most verbs denote actions or states.

According to their morphological composition verbs can be divided into simple, derivative, compound, and composite (phrasal verbs).

Simple verbs consist of only one root morpheme: ask, build, go.

Derivative verbs are composed of one root morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes and suffixes). The main verb forming suffixes are: -ate, -en, -fy, -ize as in: organize, justify, blacken, decorate. The most widely spread prefixes are: de-, dis-, mis-, re, un-, as in: decompose, dislike, misunderstand, rewrite, and unpack.

Compound verbs consist of at least two stems: overgrow, undertake.

Phrasal verbs consist of verbal stem and a particle. Particles change the meaning of the verb with which they are associated. Thus there are phrasal verbs whose meaning is different from the meaning of their components:

e.g. to give up – to give in to do up – to do away to put up with – to put out

There are other phrasal verbs in which the original meaning is preserved: to stand up, to sit down, to come in, to take off, to put on.

Classifications of the Verb

1. Verbs are words denoting actions, e.g. to play, to write, or state, e.g. to suffer, to stand. Semantically, all verbs can be divided into two groups – terminative and durative verbs.

Terminative (предельные) verbs have a final aim in view. These are such verbs as sit down, come, fall, stop, open, close, shut, begin, recognize, refuse, find, etc.

Durative (непредельные) verbs imply that the actions expressed by these verbs may go on indefinitely. These are such verbs as run, carry, stand, sit, sleep, know, live, suppose, talk, speak, etc.

But as most verbs in English may be polysemantic they may be terminative in one meaning and durative in another. Here belong such verbs as see, hear, know, write, read, translate.

Compare: Can you read? (durative) − He longed to read his stories to Ruth. (terminative)

I’ll see you to the door. (terminative) – Can you see well? (durative)

2. English verbs can be classified from the semantic and the syntactic point of view.

From the semantic point of view, verbs can be divided into the following classes: actional verbs, which denote actions proper (do, go make, write, etc.) and statal verbs, which denote state (be, exist, lie, sit, stand, know etc.) or relations (belong, fit, match, have, cost, etc.). It is very important to know that statal and relational verbs have no passive voice and generally are not used in the continuous and perfect continuous tenses.

From the syntactic point of view verbs may be subdivided into transitive (переходные) and intransitive (непереходные) ones.

Transitive verbs can take a direct object, i.e. they express an action which passes on to a person or a thing directly. These are such verbs as give, take, send, make, see, show, bring, love, etc. Transitive verbs may be followed:

a) by one direct object: Jane is helping her sister;

b) by a direct and an indirect objects: Jane gave her sister an apple (her sister is an indirect object, an apple is a direct object);

c) by a prepositional object: Jane looks after her sister.

Intransitive verbs do not require any object for the completion of their meaning: The sun is rising.

There are many words in English that can function as both transitive and intransitive:

e.g. Tom is writing a letter. (transitive) – Tom writes clearly. (intransitive)

Who has broken the vase? (transitive) – Glass breaks easily. (intransitive)

From both semantic and syntactic points of view verbs may be used as notional words and as functional words. Notional verbs always have their own lexical meaning and have an independent function in the sentence (He knew what he was thinking. During the war he lived in London).

When a verb is used as a functional word, it may either preserve or lose its lexical meaning. But even if it has a lexical meaning of its own, the latter is of a specific character and the verb cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence – it is always connected with some other word. Here belong modal verbs and link-verbs (глаголы связки).

A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive – together they form a compound modal verbal predicate (She couldn’t do anything under the circumstances).

A link-verb is followed by a predicative; together they form a compound nominal predicate (He was a middle-aged man. She looked very tired. It became very hot by noon).

Sometimes a verb entirely loses its lexical meaning and is called an auxiliary verb (вспомогательный глагол). They are not numerous, they are seven; to do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would. Together with a notional verb an auxiliary verb forms analytical forms (Do you know him well enough to trust him? I have known the young lady all her life).

Polysemantic verbs (многозначные глаголы) may serve as notional verbs as well as functional words. The verb ‘to be’ may be used as a notional, auxiliary, modal and link-verb.

e.g. The book is on the table. (notional) He is reading. (auxiliary)

She is young. (link-verb) We are to meet at Peter’s. (modal)

The verb ‘to have’ may be used as a notional, auxiliary and modal verb.

e.g. She has a nice cottage in the country. (notional)

I had to reconsider my position. (modal)

What has happened? You are so pale. (auxiliary)

The verb to do may be used as a notional and an auxiliary verb.

e.g. What are you doing here? (notional)

Do you smoke? ( auxiliary)

There are some other polysemantic verbs in English such as ‘to get’, ‘to grow’, ‘to turn’, etc.

Morphological Categories of the Verb

The verb has the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, perfect, voice and mood.

The category of person expresses the relation of the action and its doer to the speaker, showing whether the action is performed by the speaker (the 1st person), someone addressed by the speaker (the 2nd person) or someone / something other than the speaker or the person addressed (the 3rd person).

The category of number shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-persons. For the simple present tense of the verb to be there are three forms;

the 1st person singular – am,

the 3rd person singular – is,

the form for all persons plural – are.

The category of tense expresses the relationship between the time of the action and the time of speaking. There are three tenses in English – the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense which refer actions to present, past or future time.

The category of aspect shows the way or the manner in which an action is performed, i.e. whether the action is perfective (совершенное), imperfective (несовершенное), momentary (мгновенное, однократное), durative (длитель­ное), etc.

In English the category of aspect is represented by the continuous aspect and the common aspect.

Continuous	Common
is writing was writing will be writing has been writing	writes wrote will write has written

The category of perfect is as fundamental to the English verb as the categories of tense and aspect; it is constituted by the opposition of the perfect to the non-perfect.

The perfect forms denote actions preceding certain moments of time in the past, present or future.

The non-perfect forms denote actions belonging to certain moments of time in the past, present or future.

The category of tense. There are the following tense forms in the English language

the present simple (the present indefinite),

the present continuous,

the present perfect,

the present perfect continuous,

the past simple (the past indefinite),

the past continuous,

the past perfect,

the past perfect continuous,

the future simple (the future indefinite),

the future continuous,

the future perfect,

the future perfect continuous,

the future-in-the-past simple (the future-in-the-past indefinite),

the future in-the-past continuous,

the future in-the-past perfect,

the future in-the-past perfect continuous.

The category of voice is represented by the active voice and the passive voice.

e.g. I had asked no questions, of course; but then, on the other hand, I had been asked none.

The meaning of the category of mood is the attitude of the speaker or the writer towards the content of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the action real, unreal, desirable, necessary, etc. We have the Indicative (изъяви­тельное наклонение), the Imperative (повелительное наклонение) and the Subjunctive Mood (сослагательное наклонение) in the English language.

The Category of Aspect. Statal Verbs

Statal verbs are verbs which do not normally have continuous tenses because the describe a state rather than an action. These include:

− verbs which express likes and dislikes: like, love, hate, dislike, enjoy, prefer, etc. (Cathy likes romantic films);

− verbs of perception: believe, know, notice, remember, forget, recognize, understand, realize, seem, think, etc. (I don’t believe a word he’s saying);

− verbs of the senses: see, hear, feel, taste, look, smell, sound. We often use can or could with these verbs when we refer to what we see, hear, etc. at the moment of speaking (the soup tastes delicious. I can hear her footsteps);

− some other verbs: be, contain, fit, include, matter, need, belong, cost, owe, mean, own, appear, want, have (= possess), etc. (This book is mine. It belongs to me).

Some statal verbs can be used in the continuous, but there is a difference in meaning.

State	Action
I think she’s Italian (= believe).	I’m thinking about my holiday (= am considering).
The soup tastes awful (= has an awful flavour).	She’s tasting the soup (= is testing its flavour).
I can see an plane in the sky (= perceive with my own eyes).	I’m seeing John tonight (= am meeting).
Susan looks tired (= appears).	Susan is looking at some photos (= is studying)
The room smells of perfume (= has a smell).	The cat is smelling her food (= is sniffing).
This towel feels soft (= is).	Jim is feeling his son’s forehead (= is touching).
He is selfish (character – permanent state).	He is being selfish (behaviour – temporary situation)
Tom has a house (= possesses).	We’re having a nice time (= we’re enjoying ourselves)
Do you like his new car? (= Is it nice?)	How are they liking the party? (= they are enjoying)
Sam now weighs more than his father (= his weight is more)	The doctor is weighing a baby (= she is finding out its weight)
I expect you’re tired. (= imagine)	I’m expecting an important phone call. (= waiting for)
I have always admired Roosevelt. (= have a good opinion of somebody)	I am just admiring your new car. (= look at with appreciation)
My suit doesn’t fit me any more. (= it’s not the correct size)	A man is fitting a new shower unit. (= installing)

NOTICE! A few verbs which describe physical feelings (feel, hurt, ache) can be used in either the simple or continuous form to talk about the present physical state: Why are you lying down? – My back hurts / is hurting.