10. Types of narrators. Point of view.

POV show the way a story is told – the mode or perspective established by author by means of which the reader is presented with the characters, actions, settings and events which constitute a narrative in a work of fiction. The narration may be done in 3 points of view: 1^st person(I/We-the narrator is one of the characters and tells the story in his or her own words;uses the words I,me,we,us;the reader only knows what the narrator knows and observes; such a narrator is either a mere witness (non-participant nar or a minor participantof the events) or the central character in the story. Among 1stp nar there may be a self-conscious nar, a fallibleor unreliable nar and a naïve nar. Omniscient nar are usually reliable ones.);2^nd person(You);3^rd person(He/she;they/them-the narrator is not one of the characters(an outside observer)and uses the words he,she,it,they,them)non-participant nar, an omniscient POV. An omniscient nar may be intrusive or intrusive(impersonal, objective) a limited POV. A story’s point of view is the position from which a narrative is told. The person whose point of view is used to relate the story is regarded as the narrator.3 types of 3^rd person point of view:limited - focuses on the feelings and thoughts of one character;omniscient – has an “all-knowing” narrator who can describe the thoughts and feelings of all characters.Can be intrusive or unintrusive(impersonal,pbjective),a limited point of view;objective/dramatic – when the narrator does not reveal the feelings and thoughts of any character,he only records what is seen and heard.Multiple narrator-it is used in stories where it is important to get different characters’ views on a single matter.

11.Tonal system. Means of creating mood and atmosphere. In every literary work the writer’s feelings are reflected in the tone, attitude and atmosphere. Atmosphere is the general mood of a literary work. It is affected by the plot, setting, characters, details, symbols, and language means. The author’s attitude is his view of the characters and actions. The reader is expected to share the writer’s attitude. The atmosphere and the attitude determine the tone of the story. The tone is the light in which characters and events are depicted. It expresses the relationship btw the author and the subject matter and also btw the narrator and the reader.It may be sympathetic or impressive, cheerful or serious, humorous or melancholy, familiar or official, lyrical, dramatic, tragic. Variations of the tone may be casual, familiar, impolite, and offensive. Tone-shifts often occur in fiction and may accompany not only a change in the narrative method or in the style. The official T is set by words and idioms that have an official ring(“verbant” instead of “important”/”permit me to inform you” instead of “let me tell you”) or by carefully organized syntax and carefully expressed ideas admitting no deviations from the standard.The familiar T is established by spoken lng,the conversation style in particular(colloquial words and idioms). The main indices of tone in fiction are the author’s choice of words and structures, stylistic devices and setting. Yet these are not enough for detecting humor or irony, they require special attention. Humor is a device intended to cause laughter.

Irony the humorous or mildly sarcastic use of words to imply the opposite of what they normally mean:: verbal I a figure of speech in which the literal mng of a word of a statement is the opposite of the intended mng; I of situation arises from the contrast btw how a set of circumstances looks on the surface and what it actually is reality.It’s a literary technique based on the discrepancy btw what is intended when one acts and what the result is. Dramatic I is as literary technique in which the reader understands the actual mng of what is happening but the character does not.

13.Genre system. Subgenres. Genre is a French word mng “type”,”sort”. It designates the literary form or type into which works are classified according to what they have in common,either in formal structure or in their treatment of subject matter or both. Classification of literary work: epic, lyric, drama. Each type of literature has its particular form and style. Common characteristic of these forms: written and spoken, universality of feelings and themes, tone, inflections, feelings and emotions, common attitude to the problems of life, sincerity and truth of experience. Epic(the story is centered on heroic characters, culturally or nationally significant,and the action takes place on a grand scale):1.epitath-inscription on a tomb or grave;2.Burlesque-a humorous imitation of a serious work or literature;3.Eclogue-a short pastoral poem in the form of a dialogue btw 2 shepherds;4.Limerick-a humorous or nonsense written in 5 lines with the rhyme aabba; fable- a short story, typically with animals as characters, conveying a moral, fairytaleshort story, tale tale, letters, personal narrative, folk tales. lyric(expresses personal and emotional feelings); drama(a work of literature that is meant to be performed.The term is used interchangeably with play.A play is a story meant to be performed in a theatre before the audience,usually written in dialogue form and divided into acts):1.Comedy-lighthearted,characterized by humor and happy enfings(subgenres-black comedy(presenting stupid characters in a fantastic or nightmarish word),comedy of ideas(tends to debate ideas and theories in a witty and humorous fashion),comedy of character(laugh at human drowbacks and follies),comedy of situation9relies on ridiculous or mistaken situations,coincidents and cases of mistaken identity));2.Tragedy-a serious play that ends unhappily for the protagonist;tragicomedy;3.Farce-a high-energy comedy that plays on confusion and deceptions btw characters and features a convoluted and fast-placed plot;4.Problem play-confronts a contemporary social problem with the intent of changing public opinion on the matter; miracle play; morality play, mystery play, epic theatre, historical chronicle, drama of the absurd, one act play. Fiction(writing that is a product of the imagination): 1.Historical Fiction: based on or around a person or event from history.2. Science Fiction: dealing with aliens, the future, or advanced technology.3. Fantasy: containing monsters, magic, or other supernatural elements. Realistic Fiction: a story that could have happened, but didn’t. Nonfiction(writing that is true or factual):1. Informational Writing: writing that provides information on a topic.2. Persuasive Writing: writing that attempts to influence the reader.3. Autobiography: the story of one’s life told by oneself. 4.Biography: the story of someone’s life told by someone else. Poetry. Folklore(stories that were handed down through the oral tradition):Novel-fictional prose narrative of significant length:1.Adventure N-a novel where exciting events are more important than character development.2.Social Didactic N-a literary work intended to instruct or educate.3.Family N.4.Epistolary N-letters exchanged by characters in the story5.N of manners-focuses on social customs of a certain class or people,usually relies much on irony in the description.5.Allegory-a narrative in which literal mng corresponds clearly and directly to secondary symbolic or metaphorical mng.6.Apologue-a moral fable,usually featuring personified animals or inmate objects which act like people to allow the author to comment on the human condition.Highlights the irrationality of mankind.7.Parable-a short narrative that illustrates a moral by means of allegory.8.Autobiographical N-a novel based on the author’s life experience.

14.Elements of Poetry.Poetryis a lng in which every component-word & word order,sound & pause,image & echo is significant,because every element points towards or stands for futher relationships among & beyond themselves.Poetry is lng that always means more.Elements of poetry: diction(an art of selecting words.On this 1^st level,poetry is an art of word choice.The words of the Eng lng may be devided into 2 parts:common w(standard vocabulary:neutral,common standard-literary voc,common standard-colloquial voc) & special w(special literary bookish voc,special or non-standard colloquial voc) );rhythm(regularity of stressed & unstressed syllables became the main feature of classical poetic form since Chauser. This rhythmic arrangement is called accentual-syllabic verse or syllable-tonic metre. The lines of the verse are divided into equal units called metrical feet(consist of 2/3 syll,only 1 of which is stressed): trochee(2 syyl,the 1^st stressed and the 2^nd unstressed);iamb(2 syyl,the 1^st unstressed and the 2^nd stressed);dactyl(3 syll,the 1^st accented & 2^nd & the 3^rd unaccented);amphibrach(3 syll,the 2st unaccented & the 2^nd accented & 3^rd unaccented); anapest(3 syyl,where the accent falls on the last of the 3 syll));sometimes poets use elision; the irregularities are : shift, enjambment, pyrrhic foot, spondee, caesura, rhyme;(repetition of the end syll sounds in successive words,either as full rhymes(eye-sky) or part rhymes(river-ever) in which the end consonants match but no the vowels, masculine rhyme-the stress falls on the last syll in a line,a feminine rhyme-the stress falls on the last but one syll). English verse may be rhymed and unrhymed (blank);stanza(a unit within a larger poem. A stanza consists of a grouping of lines, set off by a space, that usually has a set pattern of meter and rhyme). The main stanza pattern are: couplet, triplet, quatrain, octave, the Spenserian stanza, sonnet. There are 2 major types of poetry: narrative poetry (epic, romance, ballad), lyric poetry (elegy, sonnet, ode).

15.Intertextuality.Allusions. Int.(coind by Julia Kristeva in 1969 in her essay “Word,dialogue and novel) is the interdependence of lit-ry texts in the sense of establishing connections b/n a given work of fiction (poetry or drama) and the lit-ry texts that have gone befire it (preceding,or precedent texts). J.Kristena’s idea was that a lit-ry text is not an isolated phenomenon but is made up of a mosaic of quotations,and that any text is the “absorption and transformaion of another”. The fundamental concept of intert. is that no text is original and unique in itself but is full of references to and quotations from other texts. Intert. is the process by which a given text relies on or refers to another one. While the theoretical concept of intert. is associated w/post-modernism,the device itself is not new. New Testament passages quote from the Old T. and some Old T. books refer to the events described in Exodus. (examples in 20^th cent.: Ullysses by James Joyce retells Homer’s Odyssey, Lord of the Flies by W.Golding is a remake of Ballantyne’s The Coral Island).Relationships b/n texts are various:adaptation,translation,imitation,plagiarism(publication as one’s own),parody(imitative use of the words,style,attitude,tone and ideas in such a way to make them ridiculous),allusion,comment on (evaluation),quotation(drawing on preceding texts as a sourseof mngs),rewriting,absorption,problematization,etc. Allusion is a brief reference to a person (famous hist.or lit.figure),event,place(real or fictitious) or to a work of art.Al-s are frequent in titles,e.g.Vanity Fair by Thackeray. Writers use allusion in lit-re for a variety of dif. reasons. In some cases, a lit-ry reference is used simply because it already communicated what the writer wants to say better than he could have himself. In most cases, though, writers make allusions b/of the many emotions or ideas that readers may associate with the works to which the writer alludes. Types of allusion: biblical, mythological, historical, literary, or social. Al-s may underline the figure of speech known as antonomasia.An al-n may take a form of appropriation-taking an image,char-r or technique from one context to another.

16.Interpretation of a literary work as an artistic whole. The message that a lit-y work conveys is expressed both ling-ly and extraling-ly. Every character,event,every bit of dialogue, every figure of speech contributes to the general effect. To comprehend and interpret a lit-ry work, therefore, one should be sensitive to the author's way of balancing both the linguistic and extralinguistic elements to stir the reader's imagination,touch his heart and excite his mind. All the numerous elements which go to make up a lit-ry work are functionally related to each other and create a unity - a unity in which every element bears an expressive relation to other elements. It is their interaction that conveys the message and gives rise to the reader's intellectual and emotional response. The organic unity of all the elements reveals itself in the fact that the message permeates and penetrates the whole work. It permeates the literary work in the sense that everything unessential is excluded from itI and all that is necessary to convey the message is included. All the elements work together to accomplish the author's intention. Each of them, directly or indirectly, impresses the message upon the reader. L. Timofeyev notes that the organic unity of the elements of a lit-ry work becomes most obvious in the process of identifying the message and the theme. The process necessarily involves the analysis of the plot and its structure, which in their turn are closely connected w/the characters. The analysis of the latter requires the analysis the verbal means and the plot w/out which char-s do not exist. Finally, the analysis of the verbal means and the plot leads back to the theme and the message of the lit-ry work. A story is not a full and photographic picture of reality. The author selects the relevant details which suggest the whole scene. He depicts only some features of the characters and their actions which are essential for the message, stimulating the reader to imagine theunessential details himself. In doing that the writer appeals to all the senses -hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch - so that the described scenes and char-s create vivid impressions in the mind of the reader. The more vivid the images are, the more stimulating they are to the reader's imagination. These images are created verbally and their vividness depends on the choice of words, the verbal arrangement, the rhythm, the light in which they are presented. They are created by a host of connotations, implied meanings, variations of verbal expressiveness and emotional overtones. The organic unity of the linguistic and the extralinguistic reveals itself in the fact that words acquire specific connotations in the specific context of a story. If a word is isolated, it loses the connotations it acquired. These connotations are wholly dependent on the context of the story. The images the words create in this context are therefore unique. Every literary work is unique not only in the sense that it has its own plot and message. It is unique in the sense that it has its own imagery and evokes a specific emotional response on the part of the reader. Therefore, all the events in the plot, its str-re, the char-s and scenes, every dialogue and detail, the choice of words and the styl. devices are related to the inseparable whole. They form a harmony. Each of the elements in particular, and all of them in unison contribute to the impact of the whole. The sensitive and attentive reader is bound to see the over-all structure of the story and appreciate the contribution of all its elements to the aesthetic effect the story produces. Appreciation and interpretation of the artistic whole is fully dependent on comprehension. It is a well-known fact that to understand a sentence one should know the meanings of the words which comprise it. On the other hand, the mng of each word depends on the meaning of the whole sentence. Therefore, full understanding is attained after one has collated the meaning of each word with the message of the whole sentence. Similarly, to understand and appreciate a lit-ry work one must collate the subjective response, which it aroused, with the objective text, relating each of its elements to the whole str-re and the message. This will ensure full comprehension of the lit-ry work and objective estimation of its value. Once it has been stressed that all the elements which make up a lit-ry work are relevant for its message,the aim is to explain func-s of each element of the artistic whole.

17.Principles and methods of literary criticism. Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of lit-re. When one regards the question of lit.cr.,one confronts the problem of interrelation b/n literary theory and critical practice. Lit-ry criticism, starting from Aristotle in the 4th century BC, studies the art of lit-re and explores the ways that lit-re affects us emotionally, intellectually, and esthetically. Purpose: to interpret the meaning of a lit-ry work and evaluate its quality;to promote high standards in lit-re and encourage a general appreciation of lit-re. Cr-m is a sense-making activity which is an inevitable part of all reading. Critical approaches. Each of the following approaches is sensitive to point of view,symbol,tone,irony,and other literary elements,but each also casts those elements in a special light.-the formalist appr. emphasizes how the element within a work achieve their effects, where as –biographical and psycological appr-s lead outward from the work to consider the author’s life and other writings (The author's life affects his/her work). Even broader appr-s,such as historical and sociological perspectives,connect the work to historic,social,and economic forces (Historical events help shape a work).Mythological readings represent the broadest appr.,because they discuss the cult-l and universal responses readers have to a work. Any given appr. raises its own types of questions and issues while seeking particular kinds of evidence to support itself. (+Geographical: Settings limit and define what writers can produce;Political: Prevailing Pol-l conditions often modify a literary work; Philosophical and Religious: The religious and ethical climate influences writers and their texts; Sociological/Anthropological: Social conditions and notions of the origins and cultures of humanity affect lit-re;Psychological: Prevailing theories of human behavior find their way into lit-re).

18.19^th century criticism. Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of lit-re. Lit-ry criticism, starting from Aristotle in the 4th century BC, studies the art of lit-re and explores the ways that lit-re affects us emotionally, intellectually, and esthetically. Purpose: to interpret the meaning of a lit-ry work and evaluate its quality;to promote high standards in lit-re and encourage a general appreciation of lit-re. Cr-m is a sense-making activity which is an inevitable part of all reading. Modern lit-ry cr. is often informed by literary theory, which is the philos. discussion of its methods and goals. When one regards the question of lit.cr.,one confronts the problem of interrelation b/n literary theory and critical practice. Criticism is a sense-making activity which is an inevitable part of all reading. 19^th cent.LC: -Biographical cr. (Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve – critic),-Cultural and hist.cr.(=historicism cr.) Biogr. cr. is a form of Literary cr. which analyzes a writer's biography to show the relationship b/n the author's life and their works of lit-re. Features: understanding the author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work; reading a biography will change, deepen, illuminate our response; biogr.critic always bases interpretation on what is in the text itself; biogr. info should amplify (расширять)the mng of the text,not drown it out w/relevant material.Hist. cr., also known as the historical-critical method or higher criticism, is a branch of literary cr. that investigates the origins of ancient text in order to understand "the world behind the text".Features: investigates the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced it – a context that uncludes artist’s biography and background; helps us understand the work by recreating the exact meaning and impact it had on its original audience; includes exploring the possibe ways in which the meaning of the text has changed over time

19.Main tenets of biographical criticism. Biographical criticism is a form of Literary cr. which analyzes a writer's biography to show the relationship b/n the author's life and their works of literature. BC is often associated with Historical-Biographical criticism, a critical method that "sees a literary work chiefly, if not exclusively, as a reflection of its author's life and times". It dates back at least to the Renaissance period, and was employed extensively by Samuel Johnson in his Lives of the Poets.  BC remained a significant mode of literary inquiry throughout the 20th century, particularly in studies of Ch.Dickens and F.Sc.Fitzgerald, among others. Features: understanding the author’s life can help readers more thoroughly comprehend the work; reading a biography will change, deepen, illuminate our response; biogr.critic always bases interpretation on what is in the text itself; biogr. info should amplify (расширять)the mng of the text,not drown it out w/relevant material. When considering biogr., look at the following aspects of an author's identity: class, race, ethnicity, sex or gender, sexual orientation, family history, religious and political beliefs, education, nationality. Theorists believe that writers react to cultural, hist. and intellectual trends, and work to either uphold or subvert those trends. Central Biogr. Quest-s: What biogr. facts has the author used in the text?/ What biographical facts has the author changed?Why?/ What insights do we acquire about the author’s life by reading the text?/ How do these facts and insights increase (or diminish) our understanding of the text?/ In what ways does the author seem to consider his or her own life as "typical" or significant?

20. Historical criticism, also known as the historical-critical method or higher criticism, is a branch of literary criticism that investigates the origins of ancient text in order to understand "the world behind the text". HC began in the 17th century and gained popular recognition in the 19th and 20th centuries. The perspective of the early historical critic was rooted in Protestant reformation ideology, in as much as their approach to biblical studies were free from the influence of traditional interpretation. Where hist. investigation was unavailable, historical criticism rested on philosophical and theological interpretation. Features: investigates the social, cultural, and intellectual context that produced it – a context that uncludes artist’s biography and background; helps us understand the work by recreating the exact meaning and impact it had on its original audience; includes exploring the possibe ways in which the meaning of the text has changed over time. Historical-critical methods are the specific procedures used to examine the text’s historical origins, such as: the time, the place in which the text was written, its sources, the events, dates, persons, places, things, and customs that are mentioned or implied in the text.  HC seeks to establish a reconstruction of the hist. situation of the author and recipients of the text. This may be accomplished by reconstructing the true nature of the events in which the text describes. An ancient text may also serve as a document, record or source for reconstructing the ancient past which may also serve as a chief interest to the hist. critic. In the 21st century, historical criticism is the more commonly used term for higher criticism. The approach of Historical-critical methods typifies the following: (1) that reality is uniform and universal, (2) that reality is accessible to human reason and investigation (3) that all events historical and natural are interconnected and comparable to analogy, (4) that humanity’s contemporary experience of reality can provide objective criteria to what could or could not have happened in past events. Historical criticism comprises several disciplines which include:Source cr-m (Source criticism is the search for the original sources which lie behind a given biblical text).Form cr-m (Form criticism breaks the Bible down into sections (pericopes, stories) which are analyzed and categorized by genres (prose or verse, letters, laws, court archives, war hymns, poems of lament, etc.).Redaction cr-m (Redaction criticism studies "the collection, arrangement, editing and modification of sources", and is frequently used to reconstruct the community and purposes of the author/s of the text).Tradition cr-m (seeks to analyze biblical lit-re in terms of the process by which biblical traditions passed from stage to stage into their final form, esp. how they passed from oral tradition to written form).Radical cr-m (has projected the concept that Jesus never existed, nor his apostles). Central Hist. Quest-s: What specific hist. events were happening when the work was being composed? What hist. events does the work deal with?In what ways did history affect the writer's outlook?/In what ways did history affect the style?language?content?/In what ways and for what reasons did the writer alter hist. events?