22. Semantic change: its causes, nature and types.

Word-meaning may change in the course of the historical development of the language and 2 processes: the change of meaning; the development of meaning. Semantic change is the process old semantic extension resulting in complete replacement of the old meaning by a new one or when the initial meaning is completely lost and replaced by a new one. e.g.: ‘villain’ – OE ‘an inhabitant of a village’; NE ‘wicked person’. Development of meaning is a change in the number and arrangement of word meanings without a single meaning disappearing with semantic structure. Usually an increase in the meaning. e.g.: snail = slow animal + slow person. Causes: linguistic; extralinguistic. By extralinguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of speech community. Anything that reflects in the change of meaning. The words are either borrowed or created from the already existing words. This way is often on. e.g.: pen (Latin – penna – a feather of a bird). Later the meaning stayed according to the function. E common linguistic factors: 1) ellipsis – in a phrase made up of 2 words, one of the words is omitted and its meaning is transferred to the remaining word. e.g.: a tobacco-pipe (originally) – a pipe (then). 2) discrimination of synonyms. E.g.: land – OE ‘both solid part of the earth + the territory of a nation’; ME ‘the word ‘country’ was borrowed from Fr.’ they became synonymous. But then ‘land’ lost one of its meanings and now ‘country’ prevails. 3) linguistic analogy. If one of the members of the synonymic set acquires a new meaning the other members of this set change their meanings too. e.g.: catch – grasp – get. A necessary condition of any semantic change is some association between the old meaning and a new one. 2 types of associations: similarity of meanings (metaphor); contiguity of meanings (metonymy). Metaphor – is the semantic process of associating 2 referents; one of which in some way resembles the other. e.g.: ‘hand’ – 16^th c. ‘pointer of the clock’. Sometimes it maybe the similarity of forms (the tongues of fire). Some linguists state that a metaphor is similarity of form and not function. Metonymy – is the semantic process of associating 2 referents; one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. e.g.: bench – acquired the meaning of judges (because they sat at the benches). All the types of semantic change depend on some comparison of the earlier and a new meaning of a word. It may be based on the difference between the concepts expressed or the reference in the real word. Also on the type of psychological association or on evaluation by the speaker or on lexico-grammatical categories. The results of semantic change may be observed in the changes of denotational meaning of the word or in the alternation of its connotational component. Types: 1) Specialization of meaning (narrowing/restriction of meaning) – the restriction of the types/range of reference denoted by the word. e.g.: ‘fowl’ – OE ‘any bird’; ME ‘only domestic’. 2) extension of meaning (broadening/generalization) – the application of the word to a wider variety or reference. e.g.: ‘target’ – small around shield; now – anything that is aimed at. 3) Degeneration (degradation/pejoration) of meaning. This is the acquisition by the word of some derogatory emotive charge. e.g.: ‘boor’ – a villager/a peasant; than it acquired a contemptible connotation – an ill-bread fellow. 4) Amelioration (elevation). The improvement of the connotational component of meaning. e.g.: ‘minister’ – a servant/attendant; now – its connotation improved – a person administering a department.