english voc-ry is very rich and extensive. 1.5 mln lexical units. The voc-ry of a person can’t embrace them all. Concordance – a dictionary of a writer. Shakespeares conc = 20 000 words.
Different approaches to word classification:
non-semantic (alphabetical order or frequency)
morphological-grouping by morphemes
semantic ways (monosem/polysem)
Words may be classified into conceptional/semantic fields(was proposed by Trir, Porzig) according the common concept underlining their meaning. Ex. Names of colours – semi-pink, light-blue…
words belonging to different parts of speech embraced by the same concept can belong to one semantic field. The members of the semantic field are not synonyms, and semantically interdependent, but all of them are united by sm common semantic concept. The semantic field may be viewed as a set of semantic items, in which the meaning of each is determined by co-presence by the other. “Captain” – army(lieutenant, colonel); navy (commander, sailor); merchant (the 1 officer).
Lexical groups may be very extensive and may cover big conceptual areas or small and belong to the same part of speech and are linked by a common concept(a common denominator). Ex. Food: dairy-products (milk, jogurt). And dairy-product here – thematic group of words. The criteria for joining words in lex-sem groups is the identity of 1 of the components of their meanings found in all lex units making up this lexical group. Ex. Sales-woman may be analyzed into the semantic components human, female, profession. This word may be included into a lex-sem group under the heading human…
Thematic groups are created by the topical heading * animals – domestic, wild.
Another approach to classification of words is the study of semantic relations between words, which can be sem relations of proximity, realized in synonymy, sem rel of opposition – antonymy.
Hyponimic rel-n – relations of inclusion. They may be viewed as hierarchical rel-ship b/n the meaning of the general and individual terms. The gen term – hyperonim, while the individual terms are called hyponemes. Genus – proximum – differentia – specifica: plant – tree, flower, bush… trees are divided into pine, apple, birch, and pine – yellow and white.
Meronymy - a telescoping inclusion. 1 word is not genius word, but consists of details – nail, finger, hand, arm – body.
Synonymy is often understood as semantic equivalents. but it can also exist b/n w-d groups and sentences.*John is taller than Bill. - Bill is shorter than John. Synonyms – words mean the same but differ in sound form(belong to the same part of speech). 2/more polysemantic words can never be syn-mas ia all their meanings. *sight – vision. 3 function of using synonyms:
substitution(to avoid repetition);
precision in meaning( avoid vagueness)
the expressive stylistic function.
Types of syn.:
Idiographic
stylistic(*house, mansion, residence)
4 sources of syn-ms:
1.borrowings
2.dialectism
3. word-building processes
4.euphemisms
Antonymy – shares many features of syn-ms. A. – words characterized by semantic polarity or opposite in meaning. 3 groups: 1) contradictories *dead – alive – no possibility of other word; 2) contraries * cold-cool-warm- hot; 3) incompatibles – a reserved of hyponeme relationship of exlusion * morning – not afternoon.
2. The origin of the English Language
It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world's languages contains an immense number of words of foreign origin. Explanations for this should be sought in the history of the language which is closely connected with the history of the nation speaking the language.
It is the story of 3 invasions and the Cultural Revolution. The language was brought to Britain by Germanic tribes like Angles, Saxons and Jutes(they conquered Britain in the 3 century). The English language originated from Anglo-Frisian dialect, which made part of the West Germanic group.
In 55 BC began the Roman invasions under Julius Caesar. But permanent conquest of Britain began in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius. Latin spread over the country and countryside.
In the mid 5 century AD started the A-S conquest, when Britain was invaded by Germanic tribes. By the year 1000 AD the country was known as England. Nowadays more than 100 most common words are of A-S origin (you, the, is, drinkan, etc). In 597 AD Christianity was brought. It was a gradual and peaceful process. The Cultural Revolution brought its huge Latin vocabulary and gave English the capacity to express abstract thoughts. Church words were brought from Greek, Latin (priest, bishop, none), Hebrew (pope, Psalter, Sabbath).
In the 9 century the Norman invasion. In 878 Alfred (the king of Wessex) got a victory over the Danish King of East Anglia. He started to rebuild monasteries, schools, introduced English in education. He started to translate Latin texts into English, wrote historical chronics.
Saxon place names have endings -ham, -ing, -stoure, -sted, -ton. The Danish origin words are –by, -wick, -throe, -toft, -thwait. About 9000 words used in Modern English came from Scandinavian: get, man, mother. The Renaissance Period. In contrast to the earliest Latin borrowings (1st с. В. С.), (e. g. major, minor, filial,moderate, intelligent, permanent, to elect, to create). There were (datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music). (e. g. atom, cycle, ethics, esthete).
Certain structural features help us to determine the source language. We have already established that the initial sk usually indicates Scandinavian origin. You can also recognise words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings.
The historical survey above is far from complete. Its aim is just to give a very general idea of the ways in which English vocabulary developed and of |
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Indo-European words The following groups can be identified: father, mother, brother, son, daughter. foot, nose, lip, heart. cow, swine, goose. (.VIII. The numerals from one to a hundred. IX. Pronouns — personal (except they which is a Scandinavian borrowing); demonstrative. X. Numerous verbs: be stand,sit, eat, know.
Borrowed words are adjusted in the three main areas of the new language system: the phonetic, the grammatical and the semantic.
borrowings have for a long time been fully adapted to the phonetic system of the English language:
(Amer.).
Grammatical adaptation consists in a complete change of the former paradigm of the borrowed word (i. e. system of the grammatical forms peculiar to it as a part of speech). By semantic adaptation is meant adjustment to the system of meanings of the vocabulary.