124 Systems theories

DISCUSSION AND RESEARCH POINTS

culture, ideology and text, and to look at the translators and publishing industry themselves. These topics are discussed in the next two chapters.

Summary

Even-Zohar's polysystem theory moves the study of translations out of a static linguistic analysis of shifts and obsession with one-to-one equiva­lence and into an investigation of the position of translated literature as a whole in the historical and literary systems of the target culture. Toury then focuses attention on finding a methodology for descriptive translation studies. His TT-oriented theoretical framework combines linguistic com­parison of ST and TT and consideration of the cultural framework of the TT. His aim is to identify the patterns of behaviour in the translation and thereby to 'reconstruct' the norms at work in the translation process. The ultimate aim of DTS is to discover probabilistic laws of translation, which may be used to aid future translators and researchers. The exact form of ST-TT comparison remains to be determined; scholars of the related Manipulation School led an interplay of theoretical models and case stud­ies in the 1980s, among which was Lambert and van Gorp's systematic 'scheme' for describing translations. Chesterman has later developed the concept of norms.

Further reading

For a summary of the influence of the Russian Formalists on polysystem theory, read Genztler (1993: 118-15). Selected writings in English translation are to be found in Matejka and Pomorska (1971). For further reading on polysystem theory see Even-Zohar (1978, 1990). For further discussion on norms, see Komissarov (1993), Hermans (1996), Nord (1997) and Pym (1998). For the Manipulation School and other descriptive approaches, see the collec­tion of papers in Hermans (1985a). Also refer back to chapter 4 to van Leuven-Zwart (1989, 1990). Related work by Lefevere is discussed in chapter 8.

Discussion and research points

1. 'Translation is no longer a phenomenon whose nature and borders are given once and for all, but an activity dependent on the relations within a certain cultural system' (Even-Zohar 1978/2000:197). What are the implications of this comment for translation and translation studies? How far do you agree with it?

2. Consider the position of translation in the polysystem of your own country. Does it occupy a primary or secondary position? Have there been noticeable changes over the years? What about translated literature's own polysystem? Are there variations according to genre, SL, etc.?

3. Look at the different case studies given in Toury's book. What elements do they have in common? What studies could you carry out to test or extend these findings?

4 One of the severest criticisms of Toury's earlier work concerned his use of the

invariant or tertium comparationis. How well do you consider Toury overcomes this problem with his 'coupled pairs' approach in his 1995 book?

5. Carry out a descriptive study of the translation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone in another TL Are your findings similar to those given in the case study in this chapter? What generalizations can you then make about the translation process? What hypotheses can you propose and how would you seek to investigate them further?

6. With reference to Toury's work of the 1970s and 1980s, Gentzler (1993: 133) claims that 'recent translation studies has found itself effectively using Toury's model in spite of his theoretical contradictions'. What evidence can you find to support or dismiss this claim? Read the various papers presented in The Manipulation of Literature (Hermans 1985a). How far do they differ from Toury's approach?

7. Follow up the discussion of norms in Toury (1978/2000,1995), Komissarov (1993), Hermans (1996,1999), Chesterman (1997), Nord (1997) and Pym (1998). How far are these scholars discussing the same concept? Can they be merged? How useful are norms in describing translation process and product? Are there other elements or norms which you feel they have omitted?

8. Systems theories have focused exclusively on literary translation. How far do you feel these theories can work for non-fiction and for technical texts?