VII. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Семья является одним из пяти фундаментальных институтов об­щества, придающим ему стабильность и способность восполнять население в каждом следующем поколении.

2. На протяжении своей жизни человек входит в состав множества самых разных групп - в группу сверстников или друзей, школь­ный класс, трудовой коллектив, в клуб по интересам или спортив­ную команду, - но лишь семья остается той группой, которую он никогда не покидает.

3. Процесс формирования семьи, с институциональной точки зре­ния, предстает как растянутый во времени процесс усвоения со­циальных норм, ролей и стандартов, регулирующих ухаживание, выбор брачного партнера, стабилизацию семьи, сексуальное по­ведение, отношения с родителями супругов.

4. Институт брака не охватывает всю сферу семейной жизни и уж тем более все многообразие отношений между родственника­ми - близкими и дальними.

5. Семья как институт, точнее, как совокупность институтов, - это социологическая категория, отражающая обычаи, законы и пра­вила поведения, которые закрепляют отношения родства между людьми.

IV. Грамматические упражнения для развития навыков перевода

В данном разделе находятся грамматические упражнения для активизации грамматических навыков и умений, необходимых для адекватного перевода текстов по специальности.

The Passive Voice

Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the forms of Passive Voice.

1. Pathological cases are the true scientific equivalent of pure experimentation, and why … pathological analysis consists in the examination of cases, unhappily too common, in which the natural laws, either of harmony or of succession, are disturbed by any causes, special or general, accidental or transient; as in revolutionary times especially; and above all, in our own.

2. This new form of the social sentiment must at first be the privilege of the choice few; but it will be extended, somewhat weakened in force, to the whole of society, in proportion as the general results of social physics become sufficiently popular.

3. And what we assert about these transitory outbreaks likewise applies to those more lasting movements of opinion which relate to religious, political, literary and artistic matters, etc., and which are constantly being produced around us, whether throughout society or in a more limited sphere.

4. If this constraint in time ceases to be felt it is because it gradually gives rise to habits, to inner tendencies which render it superfluous; but they supplant the constraint only because they are derived from it.

5. The pressure to which the child is subjected unremittingly is the same pressure of the social environment which seeks to shape him in its own image, and in which parents and teachers are only the representatives and intermediaries.

6. If some have been content with using this characteristic in order to define them it is because they have been confused, wrongly, with what might be termed their individual incarnations.

7. What irrefutably demonstrates this duality of kind is that these two categories of facts frequently are manifested dissociated from each other.

8. This is supremely evident in those beliefs and practices which are handed down to us ready fashioned by previous generations.

9. However, it can also be defined by ascertaining how widespread it is within the group, provided that, as noted above, one is careful to add a second essential characteristic; this is, that it exists independently of the particular forms that it may assume in the process of spreading itself within the group. In certain cases this latter criterion can even be more easily applied than the former one.

10. Status groups make up the social order, classes the economic order, and parties the legal/political order. Each order affects and is affected by the other.

11. Collective action based on class situations is determined by the transparency of the connections between the causes and the consequences of the class situation. If the contrast between the life chances of different class situations is merely seen as an acceptable absolute fact, no action will be taken to change the class situation.

12. The degree in which social action and possibly associations emerge from the mass behaviour of the members of a class is linked to general cultural conditions, especially those of an intellectual sort.

THE INFINITIVE

Translate the following sentences into Russian pay­ing attention to the functions of Infinitive.

1. It represents the social action of Man to be indefinite and arbitrary, as was once thought in regard to biological, chemical, physical, and even astronomical phenomena, in the earlier stages of their respec­tive sciences.

2. The next step is to examine the means of investigation proper to Social Science. We may expect to find in Sociology a more varied and developed system of resources than in any other, in proportion to the complexity of the phenomena, while yet this extension of means does not compensate for the increased imperfection arising from the intricacy.

3. In both cases it is a noble use to make of our reason, to disclose the real laws of our nature, individual or social, by the analysis of its sufferings.

4. But there is no doubt of the scientific utility of such a comparison, where it characterizes the elementary laws of social interconnection, by exhibiting their action in the most imperfect state of society, so as even to suggest useful inductions in regard to human society.

5. This rational disposition to regard men of all times as fellow-wor­kers is as yet visible in the case of only the most advanced sciences.

6. The sociological significance of conflict has in principle never been disputed. Conflict is admitted to cause or modify interest groups, unifications, organizations.

7. The system of signs that I employ to express my thoughts, the mone­tary system I use to pay my debts, the credit instruments I utilize in my commercial relationships, the practices I follow in my profession, etc., all function independently of the use I make of them.

8. None the less it is intrinsically a characteristic of these facts; the proof of this is that it asserts itself as soon as I try to resist. In other cases the constraint is less violent; nevertheless, it does not cease to exist.

9. Conflict is thus designed to resolve divergent dualisms; it is a way of achieving some kind of unity, even if it be through the annihilation of one of the conflicting parties.

10. According to our optimistic or pessimistic feeling of life, one of them appears to us as surface or accident, as something to be eliminated or subtracted, in order for the true and intrinsically consistent life to emerge.

11. We think we have, or are, a whole or unit which is composed of two logically and objectively opposed parties, and we identify this tota­lity of ours with one of them, while we feel the other to be something alien which does not properly belong and which denies our central and comprehensive being.

12. It is all the more necessary to assert the right of this second tenden­cy in respect to the sociological phenomenon of conflict, because conflict impresses us with its socially destructive force as with an apparently indisputable tact.

13. Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretive understan­ding of social action to arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects. Sociology seeks to formulate type concepts and genera­lized uniformities of empirical processes.

Participle I

Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the forms of Participle I.

1. We see the metaphysical school attributing observed events to chance, and sometimes, when that method is too obviously absurd, exaggerating ridiculously the influence of the individual mind upon the course of human affairs.

2. To indicate the order of importance of the forms of society which are to be studied by Comparative Method, I begin with the chief method, which consists in a comparison of the different coexisting states of human society on the various parts of the earth’s surface – those states being completely independent of each other.

3. But we must beware of the scientific dangers attending the process of comparison by this method.

4. Again, climate comes in to offer a third source of interpretation of comparative phenomena, sometimes agreeing with, and sometimes contradicting the two others; thus multiplying the chances of error, and rendering the analysis which looked so promising almost impracticable.

5. Moreover, this second definition is simply another formulation of the first one: if a mode of behaviour existing outside the consciousnesses of individuals becomes general, it can only do so by exerting pressure upon them.

6. Our definition will therefore subsume all that has to be defined. A social fact is any way of acting, whether fixed or not, capable of exerting over the individual an external constraint; or: which is general over the whole of a given society whilst having an existence of its own, independent of its individual manifestations.

7. Action can be causally determined by the behaviour of others, while still not necessarily being meaningfully determined by the action of others.

8. Economically conditioned power is not identical with power. The emergence of economic power may be the consequence of power existing on other grounds.

9. Put another way, treating the ideas as a coherent system of thought, science can point out to an actor what is possible within his or her value system, and what would be contradictory to that value system.

10. Objective science will pursue logical analysis of the content of ideals, while not ignoring how ideals motivate value-judgements. It will present social policy, i.e., the statement of ideals, in addition to social science, i.e., the analysis of facts.

11. The discussion of value-judgements can have only the following functions: deduction of implications for those accepting certain value-judgements which follow from certain irreducible value axioms when these axioms alone are used to evaluate certain situations of fact.

12. A man following an ethic of responsibility will arise at a place where he must say, Here I stand; I can do no other. Here, the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility are supplements, which only in unison constitute a genuine man, a man who can have the calling for politics.

Participle II

Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the forms of Participle II.

1. The first method of Social Sciences is Observation. Observations empirically conducted can at most supply provisional materials, which must usually undergo an ulterior revision.

2. The formation of social theories should be confided only to the best organized minds, prepared by the most rational training. Explored by such minds, according to rational views of co-existence and succession, social phenomena no doubt admit of much more varied and extensive means of investigation than phenomena of less complexity.

3. In short, a mind suitably trained becomes able by exercise to convert almost all impressions from the events of life into sociological indications, when once the connection of all indications with the leading ideas of the science is understood.

4. Before beginning the search for the method appropriate to the study of social facts it is important to know what are the facts termed “social”.

5. Thus there can be seen, as in an abbreviated form, how the social being has been fashioned historically. Thus it is not the fact that they are general which can serve to characterize sociological phenomena. What constitutes social facts are the beliefs, tendencies and practices of the group taken collectively.

6. Collective custom does not exist only in a state of immanence in the successive actions which it determines, but, by a privilege without example in the biological kingdom, expresses itself once and for all in a formula repeated by word of mouth, transmitted by education and even enshrined in the written word.

7. Such currents of opinion are indeed not inaccurately represented by rates of births, marriages and suicides, that is, by the result obtained after dividing the average annual total of marriages, births, and voluntary homicides by the number of persons of an age to marry, produce children, or commit suicide.

8. It is worthy of note that the vast majority of social phenomena come to us in this way. It is a product of shared existence, of actions and reactions called into play between the consciousnesses of individuals. If it is echoed in each one of them it is precisely by virtue of the special energy derived from its collective origins.

9. Action is social when, by virtue of the subjective meaning attached to it by the acting individual(s), it takes account of the behaviour of others and is thereby guided.

10. Also, it is not merely action participated in by a bunch of people (crowd action) or action influenced by or imitative of others.

11. Science can judge these ideas and ends only according to a logical and historically defined standard of value which can be elevated to a certain “level of explicitness” beyond individual sentiment.

12. Then is a discussion of two ethics, the ethic of ultimate ends and the ethic of responsibility. The ethic of ultimate ends, formulated in religious terms, is “The Christian does rightly and leaves the results with the Lord.”

The Gerund

Translate the following sentences into Russian pa­ying attention to the forms of the Gerund.

1. Men were long in learning that Man's power of modifying phenomena can result only from his knowledge of their natural laws; and in the infancy of each science, they believed themselves able to exert un­bounded influence over the phenomena of that science.

2. There is no chance of order and agreement but in subjecting social phenomena, like all others, to invariable natural laws, which shall, as a whole, prescribe for each period, with entire certainty, the limits and character of political action - in other words, introducing into the study of social phenomena the same positive spirit which has regen­erated every other branch of human speculation.

3. Again, there is the danger of mistaking modifications for primary phases; as when social differences have been ascribed to the politi­cal influence of climate, instead of that inequality of evolution which is the real cause.

4. Here, again, we see the indispensable necessity of keeping in view the positive conception of human development as a whole.

5. What we can now comprehend is that the historical method verifies and applies, in the largest way, that chief quality of sociological science - its proceeding from the whole to the parts. Without this per­manent condition of social study, all historical labor would degene­rate into being a mere compilation of provisional materials.

6. As Condorcet observed, no enlightened man can think of the battles of Marathon and Salamis without perceiving the importance of their consequences to the race at large.

7. And it is worth noticing that the prevision will be nearest the truth in proportion as the phenomena in question are more important and more general; because then continuous causes are predominant in the social movement; and disturbances have less power.

8. The present is, by itself, purely misleading, because it is impossible to avoid confounding principal with secondary facts, exalting con­spicuous transient manifestations over fundamental tendencies, which are generally very quiet; and above all, supposing those po­wers, institutions, and doctrines, to be in the ascendant, which are, in fact, in their decline.

9. Even when in fact I can struggle free from these rules and success­fully break them, it is never without being forced to fight against them.

10. Yet, first and foremost, these various phenomena present the same characteristic which has served us in defining the others. These ways of being impose themselves upon the individual just as do the ways of acting we have dealt with.

The -ing forms

Translate the following sentences into Russian pa­ying attention to the - ing

forms.

1. In its relation to Observation, this kind of comparison offers the ad­vantage of being applicable both to statical and dynamical inquiries, verifying the laws of both, and even furnishing occasionally valuable direct inductions in regard to both.

2. The positive principle of this separation results from the necessary influence of human generations upon the generations that follow, accumulating continuously till it constitutes the preponderating con­sideration in the direct study of social development.

3. Considering in turn each member of society, the foregoing remarks can be repeated for each single one of them.

4. Thus there are ways of acting, thinking and feeling which possess the remarkable property of existing outside the consciousness of the individual.

5. What renders these latter facts particularly illuminating is that edu­cation sets out precisely with the object of creating a social being.

6. Since each one of these statistics includes without distinction all in­dividual cases, the individual circumstances which may have played some part in producing the phenomenon cancel each other out and consequently do not contribute to determining the nature of the phe­nomenon. What it expresses is a certain state of the collective mind.

7. The individual does not attain the unity of his personality exclusively by an exhaustive harmonization, according to logical, objective, reli­gious, or ethical norms, of the contents of his personality.

8. There is a misunderstanding according to which one of these two kinds of interaction tears down what the other builds up, and what is eventually left standing is the result of the subtraction of the two. This misunderstanding probably derives from the twofold meaning of the concept of unity.

9. We designate as “unity” the consensus and concord of interacting indi­viduals, as against their discords, separations, and disharmonies. But we also call “unity” the total group-synthesis of persons, energies, and forms, that is, the ultimate wholeness of that group, a wholeness which covers both strictly-speaking unitary relations and dualistic relations.

10. Action is human behavior to which the acting individual attaches sub­jective meaning.

11. Science can help an actor choose between alternative ends by analyzing the appropriateness of a means for an end, and by providing informa­tion on what a desired end will cost in terms of the loss of other values. The acting person can then choose from among the values involved ac­cording to his own conscience or personal view. Science can show him that all choosing involves the espousal of certain values.

12. In non-scientific discussions of policy, it must be made clear where the investigator stops analyzing and where the evaluating and acting person begins to present his sentiments (make value judgements).

13. The final result of political action regularly stands in completely in­ adequate and often paradoxical relation to its original meaning. Be­cause of this fact, the serving of a cause must not be absent if action is to have inner strength.

The Modal Verbs

Translate the following sentences into Russian pa­ying attention to the forms and meanings of the Modal Verbs.

1. If we look with a philosophical eye upon the present state of social science, we cannot but recognize in it the combination of all the fea­tures of that theologico-metaphysical infancy which all the other sciences have had to pass through.

2. We have to contemplate social phenomena as susceptible of previ­sion, like all other classes, within the limits of exactness compatible with their higher complexity.

3. By this method, the different stages of evolution may all be observed at once.

4. It is the same in every direction, and especially with regard to politi­cal history, as it is called; as if any history could be other than poli­tical, more or less!

5. If the historical comparisons of the different periods of civilization are to have any scientific character, they must be referred to the general social evolution: and it is only thus that we can obtain the guiding ideas by which the special studies themselves must be directed.

6. This kind of feeling should, when we are treating of science, be carefully distinguished from the sympathetic interest which is awakened by all delineations of human life – in fiction as well as in history.

7. From these first general aspects, the same rational certainty may extend to secondary and special aspects, through their statical relations with the first; and thus we may obtain conclusions sufficiently accurate for the application of principles.

8. In every science we must have learned to predict the past, so to speak, before we can predict the future, because the first use of the observed relations among fulfilled facts is to teach us by the anterior succession what the future succession will be.

9. In fact, when we wish to learn how a society is divided up politically, in what its divisions consist and the degree of solidarity that exists between them, it is not through physical inspection and geographical observation that we may come to find this out: such divisions are social, although they may have some physical basis.

10. Moreover, how often does it happen that we are ignorant of the details of the obligations that we must assume, and that, to know them, we must consult the legal code and its authorized interpreters.

11. On the other hand, it may sound paradoxical in the common view if one asks whether irrespective of any phenomena that result from convict or that accompany it, it itself is a form of sociation.

12. A more comprehensive classification of the science of the relations of men should distinguish, it would appear, those relations which constitute a unit, that is, social relations in the strict sense, from those which counteract unity.

13. It must be realized, however, that both relations can usually be found in every historically real situation.

14. The society of saints which Dante sees in the Rose of Paradise may be like such a group, but it is without any change and development; whereas the holy assembly of Church Fathers in Raphael’s Disputa shows if not actual conflict, at least a considerable differentiation of moods and directions of thought, whence flow all the vitality and the really organic structure of that group.

15. The highest conception indicated in respect to these contrasting pairs appears to me different: we must sense the pulse of a central vitality even in that which, if seen from the standpoint of a particular ideal, ought not to be at all and is merely something negative; we must allow the total meaning of our existence to grow out of both parties.

16. Again, individual sentiments don’t have to be eliminated, nor can they be, but they should be kept strictly separate from scientific analysis. An attitude of moral indifference has not connection with scientific “objectivity.”

To be

Translate the following sentences into Russian pa­ying attention to the functions of the verb to be.

1. Though the progression is single and uniform, in regard to the whole race, some very considerable and very various populations have, from causes which are little understood, attained extremely unequal degrees of development, so that the former states of the most civilized nations are now to be seen, amid some partial differences, among contemporary populations inhabiting different parts of the globe.

2. As long as this preponderance is not directly recognized, the positive study of humanity must appear a simple prolongation of the natural history of Man: but this scientific character, suitable enough to the earlier generations, disappears in the course of the social evolution, and assumes at length a wholly new aspect, proper to sociological science, in which historical considerations are of immediate importance.

3. Thoughts to be found in the consciousness of each individual and movements which are repeated by all individuals are not for this reason social facts.

4. None of these modes of acting and thinking are to be found wholly in the application made of them by individuals, since they can even exist without being applied at the time.

5. Therefore they are not phenomena which are in the strict sense sociological. They depend on both domains at the same time, and could be termed socio-psychical. They are of interest to the sociologist without constituting the immediate content of sociology.

6. On the contrary, contradiction and conflict not only precede this unity but are operative in it at every moment of its existence.

7. But these discords are by no means mere sociological liabilities or negative instances. Definite, actual society does not result only from other social forces which are positive, and only to the extent that the negative factors do not hinder them.

8. We thus account for the group phenomenon which we feel to be unitary in terms of functional components considered specifically “unitary”; and in so doing, we disregard the other, larger meaning of the term.

9. The science of social institutions and culture arose for practical considerations, with the purpose of producing value-judgement as measures of state policy. Knowledge of what “is” was conflated with knowledge of what “should be”; this was because natural laws and evolutionary principles dominated the field.

10. The specific function of science is to ask questions about the things which convention makes self-evident.

11. The same characteristic is to be found in the organisms of those mixed phenomena of nature studied in the combined sciences such as bio-chemistry.

12. To be passionate, on the other hand, is the element of the politician and, above all, of the political leader.

The Conditional Sentences

Translate the following sentences into Russian pay­ing attention to the forms of the Conditional Sentences.

1. If we desired to familiarize ourselves with this historical method, we would employ it first upon the past, by endeavoring to deduce every well-known historical situation from the whole series of its antecedents.

2. If therefore these facts were social ones, sociology would possess no subject matter peculiarly its own, and its domain would be con­fused with that of biology and psychology.

3. If I attempted to violate the rules of law they would react against me so as to forestall my action, if there was still time. Alternatively, they would annul it or make my action conform to the norm if it was al­ ready accomplished but capable of being reversed; or they would cause me to pay the penalty for it if it was irreparable.

4. If purely moral rules were at stake, the public conscience would re­strict any act which infringed them by the surveillance it exercises over the conduct of citizens and by the special punishments it has at its disposal.

5. If I did not conform to ordinary conventions, if in my mode of dress I paid no heed to what is customary in my country and in my social class, the laughter I would provoke, the social distance at which I would be kept, would produce, although in a more mitigated form, the same results as any real penalty.

6. I am not forced to speak French with my compatriots, nor to use the legal currency, but it is impossible for me to do otherwise. If I tried to escape the necessity, my attempt would fail miserably.

7. Even when we have individually and spontaneously shared the com­mon emotion, the impression we have experienced is utterly diffe­rent from what we would have felt if we had been alone.

8. If one views the facts as they are and indeed as they have always been, it is patently obvious that all education consists of a continual effort to impose upon the child ways of seeing, thinking and acting which he himself would not have arrived at spontaneously.

9. Doubtless if phenomena of a morphological kind were the only ones that displayed this rigidity, it might be thought that they constituted a separate species.

10. It would undoubtedly be advantageous to reserve the term “mor­phological” for those social facts which relate to the social substra­tum, but only on condition that one is aware that they are of the same nature as the others.

11. It was a phenomenon of its own, and its subsumption under the con­cept of unity would have been arbitrary as well as useless, since con­flict meant the negation of unity.

12. If at an English examination a pupil says: “I could know English very well if I chose to; I do not know any because I have never seen fit to learn,” the examiner replies: “I am not interested in your alibi. The grade for what you know is zero.”

The pronoun It

Translate the following sentences with anticipatory it into Russian.

1. It was this logical need which, in the infancy of human reason, occasioned the rise of theological philosophy… it is clear that, scientifically speaking, all isolated, empirical observation is idle, and even radically uncertain; that science can use only those observations which are connected, at least hypothetically, with some law; that it is such a connection which makes the chief differences between scientific and popular observation, embracing the same facts, but contemplating them from different points of view.

2. In this view, it is not only the immediate inspection or direct description of events that affords useful means of positive exploration; but the consideration of apparently insignificant customs, the appreciation of various kinds of monuments, the analysis and comparison of languages, and a multitude of other resources.

3. It is a very irrational disdain which makes us object to all comparison between human society and the social state of the lower animals.

4. The question is all the more necessary because the term is used without much precision. It is commonly used to designate almost all the phenomena that occur within society, however little social interest of some generality they present.

5. Hence we are the victims of an illusion which leads us to believe we have ourselves produced what has been imposed upon us externally. But if the willingness with which we let ourselves be carried along disguises the pressure we have undergone, it does not eradicate it.

6. Now if this external coercive power asserts itself so acutely in cases of resistance, it must be because it exists in the other instances cited above without our being conscious of it. Thus air does not cease to have weight, although we no longer feel that weight. It is then we perceive that we have undergone the emotions much more than generated them.

7. It may be objected that a phenomenon can only be collective if it is common to all the members of society, or at the very least to a majority, and consequently, if it is general. This is doubtless the case, but if it is general it is because it is collective (that is, more or less obligatory); but it is very far from being collective because it is general. It is a condition of the group repeated in individuals because it imposes itself upon them. It is in each because it is in the whole, but far from being in the whole because it is in the parts.

8. It is only through public law that we can study such political organization, because this law is what determines its nature, just as it determines our domestic and civic relationships.

9. The organization is no less a form of compulsion. If the population clusters together in our cities instead of being scattered over the rural areas, it is because there exists a trend of opinion, a collective drive which imposes this concentration upon individuals.

10. This nature appears more clearly when it is realized that both forms of relation – the antithetical and the convergent – are fundamentally distinguished from the mere indifference of two or more individuals or groups. Whether it implies the rejection or the termination of sociation, indifference is purely negative.

The PRONOUN One

Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. But we shall find that the science is not entirely deprived of this re­source though it must be one of inferior value.

2. Where, for instance, is the use of any exclusive history of any one science or art, unless meaning is given to it by first connecting it with the study of human progress generally?

3. Once the assembly has broken up and these social influences have ceased to act upon us, and we are once more on our own, the emo­tions we have felt seem an alien phenomenon, one in which we no longer recognize ourselves.

4. Moreover, even when the dissociation is not immediately observable, it can often be made so with the help of certain methodological de­vices. Indeed it is essential to embark on such procedures if one wishes to refine out the social fact from any amalgam and so observe it in its pure state.

5. As regards their private manifestations, these do indeed have some­ thing social about them, since in part they reproduce the collective model. But to a large extent each one depends also upon the psychi­cal and organic constitution of the individual, and on the particular circumstances in which he is placed.

6. We accept and adopt them because, since they are the work of the collectivity and one that is centuries old, they are invested with a special authority that our education has taught us to recognize and respect.

7. If all hearts beat in unison, this is not as a consequence of a sponta­neous, pre-established harmony; it is because one and the same force is propelling them in the same direction. Each one is borne along by the rest.

8. We can no more choose the design of our houses than the cut of our clothes - at least, the one is as much obligatory as the other.

9. Generality combined with objectivity may then be easier to estab­lish. However, one may well ask whether this definition is complete.

10. According to the common view, life always shows two parties in opposition. One of them represents the positive aspect of life, its content proper, if not its substance, while the very meaning of the other is non-being, which must be subtracted from the positive ele­ments before they can constitute life.

11. The highest conception indicated in respect to these contrasting pairs appears to me different: we must conceive of all these polar dif­ferentiations as of one life.

12. Life constantly moves between these two tendencies. The one has just been described. The other lets the whole really be the whole. It makes the unity, which after all comprises both contrasts, alive in each of these contrasts and in their juncture.

13. “Understanding” explanations do justice to a person who really or evidently thinks differently. They are scientifically valuable 1) for the purposes of a causal analysis which seeks to establish the motives of human actions and 2) for the communication of really divergent evaluations when one is in discussion with a person who really or apparently has different evaluations from one’s self.

14. Next to the qualities of will, the force of demagogic speech has been above all decisive in the choice of strong leaders. What kind of man must one be if he is to be allowed to put his hand on the wheel of history?

CONJUNCTIONS As, For, since

Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. No real observation of any kind of phenomena is possible, except in as far as it is first directed, and finally interpreted, by some theory.

2. This condition so far increases the immediate difficulty that good observers will be rare at first, though more abundant than ever as the science expands.

3. As for the third of those methods, Comparison, the comparative method must prevail in all studies of which the living organism is the subject.

4. And this preponderant use of the historical method gives its philosophical character to sociology in a logical as well as a scientific sense.

5. When I perform my duties as a brother, a husband or a citizen and carry out the commitments I have entered into, I fulfill obligations which are defined in law and custom and which are external to myself and my actions.

6. Yet as this educational theory has never been put into practice among any known people, it can only be the personal expression of a desideratum and not a fact which can be established in contradiction to the other facts given above.

7. But even when the social fact is partly due to our direct co-operation, it is no different in nature. An outburst of collective emotion in a gathering does not merely express the sum total of what individual feelings share in common, but is something of a very different order, as we have demonstrated.

8. Consequently, at the most there are grounds for adding one further category to the list of phenomena already enumerated as bearing the distinctive stamp of a social fact. But as that enumeration was in no wise strictly exhaustive, this addition would not be indispensable.

9. At one time it appeared as if there were only two consistent subject matters of the science of man: the individual unit and the unit of individuals (society); any third seemed logically excluded.

10. Just as the universe needs “love and hate,” that is, attractive and repulsive forces, in order to have any form at all, so society, too, in order to attain a determinate shape, needs some quantitative ratio of harmony and disharmony, of association and competition, of favorable and unfavorable tendencies.

11. This common conception is quite superficial: society, as we know it, is the result of both categories of interaction, which thus both manifest themselves as wholly positive.

12. In reality, however, something which is negative and damaging between individuals if it is considered in isolation and as aiming in a particular direction, does not necessarily have the same effect within the total relationship of these individuals.

13. Perhaps it is not given to us to attain, much less always to maintain, the height from which all phenomena can be felt as making up the unity of life, even though from an objective or value standpoint, they appear to oppose one another as pluses and minuses, contradictions, and mutual elimination.

14. Social relationship: the behaviour of actors in so far as, in its meaningful content, the action of each takes account of the others and is oriented to the behaviour of others.

Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the usage of conjunctions for and since.

1. We are in danger of the same mistake in regard to races; for, as the sociological comparison is instituted between peoples of different races, we are liable to confound the effects of race and of the social period.

2. We see how absurd in theory and dangerous in practice are the notions and declamations of the empirical school, and of the enemies of all social speculation: for it is precisely in proportion to their elevation and generality that the ideas of positive social philosophy become real and effective – an illusion and uselessness belonging to conceptions which are too narrow and too special, in the departments either of science or of reasoning.

3. By the creation of this new department of the comparative method, sociology confers a benefit on the whole of natural philosophy; because the positive method is thus completed and perfected, in a manner which, for scientific importance, is almost beyond our estimate.

4. A considerable accuracy of prevision may thus be obtained, for any determinate period, and with any particular view; as historical analysis will indicate the direction of modifications, even in the most disturbed times.

5. Even when they conform to my own sentiments and when I feel their reality within me, that reality does not cease to be objective, for it is not I who have prescribed these duties; I have received them through education.

6. It is appropriate, since it is clear that, not having the individual as their substratum, they can have none other than society, either political society in its entirety or one of the partial groups that it includes – religious denominations, political and literary schools, occupational corporations, etc. Moreover, it is for such as these alone that the term is fitting, for the word “social” has the sole meaning of designating those phenomena which fall into none of the categories of facts already constituted and labelled.

7. It is sufficient for dissociation to exist unquestionably in the numerous important instances cited, for us to prove that the social fact exists separately from its individual effects.

8. Conflict itself resolves the tension between contrasts. The fact that it aims at peace is only one, an especially obvious, expression of its nature: the synthesis of elements that work both against and for one another.

9. Since discord unfolds its negative, destructive character between particular individuals, we naively conclude that it must have the same effect on the total group.

10. For, a very different picture emerges when we view the conflict in conjunction with other interactions not affected by it.

11. Man does not strive for power only to enrich himself economically. Power, including economic power, may be valued for its own sake.

12. A class exists when a number of people have in common a specific casual component of their life chances in the following sense: this component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possession of goods and opportunities for income under conditions of the commodity or labour markets.

13. Since the time of the constitutional state, and definitely since democracy has been established, the demagogue has been the typical political leader.

SUBORDINATE Clauses and the ADJECTIVE-FORMING. Suffix — able

Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the Subordinate Clauses.

1. This is the nature and character of the indirect experimentation which discloses the real economy of the social body in a more marked man­ner than simple observation could do. It is applicable to all orders of sociological research, whether relating to existence or to movement, and regarded under any aspect whatever, physical, intellectual, mor­al or political; and to all degrees of the social evolution, from which, unhappily, disturbances have never been absent.

2. In brief, in all that part of sociology, in all that relates to the first germs of the social relations, and the first institutions which were founded by the unity of the family or the tribe, there is not only great scientific advantage, but real philosophical necessity for employing the rational comparison of human with other animal societies.

3. But it is a consequence from these last considerations that this first sketch of sociological science, with the means of investigation that belong to it, rests immediately upon the primary use of a new me­thod of observation, which is so appropriate to the nature of the phenomena as to be exempt from the dangers inherent in the others.

4. As for the course to be pursued by this method - it appears to me that its spirit consists in the rational use of social series; that is, in a successive estimate of the different states of humanity which shall show the growth of each disposition, physical, intellectual, moral, or political, combined with the decline of the opposite disposition, whence we may obtain a scientific prevision of the final ascendancy of the one and extinction of the other - care being taken to frame our conclusions according to the laws of human development.

5. Before our very eyes, we see statesmen going no farther back than the last century, to obtain an explanation of the confusion in which we are living; the most abstract of politicians may take in the pre­ceding century, but the philosophers themselves hardly venture beyond the sixteenth; so that those who are striving to find the is­ sue of the revolutionary period have actually no conception of it as a whole, though that whole is itself only a transient phase of the gene­ral social movement.

6. Suppose we begin by giving a theoretical definition of the thing we are dealing with, making it as exact as possible, and then go on to see what practical consideration we can replace it with to get a first approximation.

Translate the following sentences into Russian pay­ing attention to the words with suffix - able.

1. It might be supposed beforehand that the second method of investi­gation, Experiment, must be wholly inapplicable in Social Science.

2. As it is in their development, especially, that the various social elements are interconnected and inseparable, it is clear that any partial filiation must be essentially untrue.

3. By the philosophical preponderance of the historical method, it will be extended to all the aspects of human life, so as to sustain, in a reflective temper, that respect for our ancestors which is indis­pensable to a sound state of society, and so deeply disturbed at present by the metaphysical philosophy.

4. However, in reality there is in every society a clearly determined group of phenomena separable, because of their distinct characteristics, from those that form the subject matter of other sciences of nature.

5. Yet since it is indisputable today that most of our ideas and tenden­cies are not developed by ourselves, but come to us from outside, they can only penetrate us by imposing themselves upon us.

6. A social fact is identifiable through the power of external coercion which it exerts or is capable of exerting upon individuals. The pres­ence of this power is in turn recognizable because of the existence of some pre-determined sanction, or through the resistance that the fact opposes to any individual action that may threaten it.

7. The presence of constraint is easily ascertainable when it is mani­fested externally through some direct reaction of society, as in the case of law, morality, beliefs, customs and even fashions. But when constraint is merely indirect, as with that exerted by an economic organization, it is not always so clearly discernible.

8. Yet the number and nature of the elementary parts which constitute society, the way in which they are articulated, the degree of coales­cence they have attained, the distribution of population over the earth's surface, the extent and nature of the network of communica­tions, the design of dwellings, etc., do not at first sight seem relatable to ways of acting, feeling or thinking.

9. But a legal rule is no less permanent an arrangement than an archi­tectural style, and yet it is a “physiological” fact. A simple moral maxim is certainly more malleable, yet it is cast in forms much more rigid than a mere professional custom or fashion.

10. The unresolvable question - unresolvable because it is ultimately a question of evaluation - as to whether one may, must, or should champion certain practical values in teaching, should not be confused with the purely logical discussion of the relationship of value-judge­ments to empirical disciplines such as sociology.