The Anglo-Norman realm

The invasion of England in 1066 by a moderate force of Norman, Breton and Flemish knights marked a decisive turning point in the nation's history. The destruction of the old Anglo-Danish hierarchy at Hastings effectively severed England's traditional ties with the Scandinavian world that had existed since the 9th century. Nevertheless the Normans were still forced to repel invasions from large Norwegian and Danish forces in the late 1060s that found native support in the north-east of England. To prevent future raids and crush internal resistance, William I adopted a 'scorched earth' policy known as the 'harrowing of the north', and castles appeared throughout England to garrison a resident military force.

To prevent future raids and crush internal resistance, William I adopted a 'scorched earth' policy...

In consequence, for the next 150 years England enjoyed an unprecedented level of security from external enemies as part of an Anglo-Norman 'super-state'. Friendly Norman ports protected England's southern coasts, whilst the Channel was viewed as an inconvenient break in the lines of communication between the two territories rather than a defensive ditch. Only family conflict compromised this security. England slipped into anarchy when King Stephen lost Normandy to Henry, Duke of Anjou, who repeatedly invaded until he won the throne in 1154.

England and Normandy were thus absorbed into an 'Angevin Empire' that stretched from the Scottish border in the north to the Pyranees in the south, and incorporated about two-thirds of modern France. Naturally the French monarchy felt threatened by such an over-mighty neighbour, and wars sporadically broke out; however the fighting took place across the Channel in a disputed territory known as the Norman Vexin. From 1154, this was effectively England's eastern frontier, and invasion was a distant threat.

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The loss of Normandy and war with France

By the dawn of the 12th century, Normandy's protection from French invasion relied heavily on English silver, expended in vast quantities by Richard I on defensive fortifications. However, the French swept through the Duchy in 1204, and castle after castle fell with bewildering rapidity. King John was unceremoniously evicted from his continental lands back to England; only Gascony was retained. For the first time since the Conquest, the Channel became England's first line of defence.

To his credit, John realised that dominance of the Channel was crucial if England was to be saved, and expended vast sums building a navy. Planned French invasions in 1205 and 1213 were thwarted at sea, but during the crisis of 1215 the rebellious barons invited French troops under Prince Louis to land unopposed to assist with their struggle over Magna Carta. Dover Castle, a vital communications centre on England's south coast, was besieged in 1216. The defenders held out - just - and after John's timely death. the French were soon driven from England's shores.