Есть ли будущее у британской монархии?

Более ста лет назад королева Виктория провозгласила, что монархия не переживет ее больше, чем на 20 лет. Сейчас этот прогноз кажется слишком пессимистичным. Похороны королевы-матери в апреле 2002 года показали, что монархия все еще очень популярна среди простых британцев.

Однако, хотя сторонники республиканского строя находятся в Британии в явном меньшинстве, даже многие убежденные монархисты считают, что давно настало время перемен.

Что же необходимо изменить в королевской власти Британии? Каждый по-своему видит ответ на этот вопрос. Некоторые говорят, что пора отделить англиканскую церковь, главой которой является королева, от государства.

Предлагается отменить Закон о престолонаследии 1701 года. Есть люди, которые возмущаются тем, что королева платит только часть налогов. Они требуют, чтобы Елизавета II, как обычный гражданин страны, заплатила налог на наследство, причитающееся ей после смерти матери. В повестке дня, вероятно, стоит и сокращение репрезентативной роли членов королевской семьи – многим надоели постоянные скандалы, которые сопровождают некоторых членов королевской фамилии.

Республиканское меньшинство требует полной отмены монархии. Однако возможно, что разговоры о кардинальных реформах, которые ведутся уже давно, ни к чему не приведут.

На протяжении пяти десятков лет Елизавете II удавалось сохранять любовь и уважение подданных, какая бы партия ни находилась у власти, и какой бы премьер ни возглавлял Кабинет Министров – консерватор Уинстон Черчилль или лейборист Гарольд Уилсон.

Британская монархия, по мнению многих, выжила потому, что старалась идти в ногу со временем. Скорее всего, семья Виндзоров и в будущем сохранит за собой британский трон, который ее представители занимают с 1714 года.

UNIT 9. COURTS TODAY – THE MAZE OF THE LAW

TASK 1. Render the following text into English paying special attention to the words and expressions in bold type:

Правовая система Англии и Уэльса относится к так называемой правовой семье общего права (англосаксонской системе). В отличие от стран романо-германской правовой семьи (континентальной системы) английское законодательство не кодифицировано и, как следствие этого, имеет менее систематизированный характер. В этих условиях в системе источников права Англии и Уэльса одно из ведущих мест наряду с законом (нормативно-правовым актом) традиционно занимает судебный прецедент – решение суда по конкретному делу, являющееся обязательным для нижестоящих судов при последующем рассмотрении аналогичных дел. В настоящее время вышеуказанное различие между англосаксонской и континентальной системами начинает постепенно стираться.

В правовой системе Англии и Уэльса на протяжении столетий сосуществуют общее право и право справедливости.

Общее право было создано разъездными королевскими судьями, которые ездили по стране и решали самые разные дела. Первоначально дела рассматривались ими по собственному усмотрению с учетом местных обычаев, но затем, накапливая опыт и обмениваясь им, судьи выработали общие принципы для единообразного рассмотрения дел на всей территории государств.

Однако сформировавшееся за счет деятельности разъездных судей общее право не обладало необходимой гибкостью и не всегда позволяло вынести истинно верное решение. В результате постепенно формируется другая система права и отправления правосудия. Если суды общего права при вынесении решений были связаны жесткими, формализованными рамками, то суд лорда-канцлера решал дела, руководствуясь принципами гуманности и справедливости. Поэтому новая альтернативная система права и отправления правосудия стала называться правом справедливости.

В результате судебной реформы 1873-1875 гг. обе системы – общего права и права справедливости – были объединены в единую систему, в рамках которой они продолжают сосуществовать и поныне, при этом в случае противоречия между двумя системами приоритет имеет право справедливости.

TASK 2. Memorize the following universally accepted translations of the terms describing the elements of the English court system.

the European Court of Justice – Суд Европейских Сообществ the Court of Appeal – апелляционный суд the High Court – Высокий суд правосудия the Crown Court – Суд короны county court – суд графств magistrates’ court – суд магистратов, мировой суд Judicial Committee of the Privy Council – Судебный комитет Тайного совета the Queen’s Bench Division – Отделение королевской скамьи the Commercial Court – Коммерческий суд, суд по торговым делам the Admiralty Court – Суд по морским делам, Морской суд the Administrative Court – Административный суд the Family Division – Отделение по семейным делам the Chancery Division – Канцлерское отделение the Divisional Court – Апелляционное присутствие the Civil Division – Отделение по гражданским делам the Criminal Division – Отделение по уголовным делам Law Lords – Судебные лорды (члены апелляционного комитета палаты лордов) the Lord Chief Justice – лорд-главный судья Lord Justice of Appeal – суд апелляционного суда

TASK 3. Study the following text.

English Courts Today

The current arrangement of the system of justice in England and Wales is based on its historical development. At the moment the court structure in England and Wales comprises the following elements:

⇨ the House of Lords (the Appellate Committee)

⇨ the Supreme Court consisting of:

• the Court of Appeal

• the High Court

• the Crown Court

⇨ County Courts

⇨ Magistrates’ Courts

A certain number of cases may also be referred to the European Court of Justice, which has jurisdiction on matters of European Community law.

The House of Lords is at the top of the structure. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary commonly known as the Law Lords, each of them being a full member of the House and a life peer, perform their judicial functions sitting as the House itself or more commonly hearing appeals as a Committee of the House known as the Appellate Committee. Before an appeal may be lodged it is necessary that the permission of the lower court or the House itself be granted.

Thus the House of Lords is the final point of appeal. The House of Lords hears appeals from the Court of Appeal and in exceptional circumstances from the High Court. Apart from England and Wales it may also hear appeals from Northern Ireland and in civil cases from Scotland. The Law Lords may also sit as the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council to hear appeals from those Commonwealth countries whose legal systems are still linked to the United Kingdom.

The Supreme Court is not a separate entity. It comprises the Court of Appeal, High Court of justice and the Crown Court and only exists as a combination of the three.

The Court of Appeal sits in London at the Royal Courts of Justice (RCJ) in the Strand and consists of the Civil Division which hears appeals from the High Court and from the County Courts and the Criminal Division which hears appeals from the Crown Court. The Court of Appeal has appellate jurisdiction only and is composed of Lord Justices of Appeal together with a number of ex officio members.

Cases involving points of law may be further referred by either of the Divisions to the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. On some occasions where an important point of law is involved appeals may go direct to the House of Lords from either the High Court or the Crown Court.

The High Court of Justice deals with important civil disputes (i.e. cases where large sums of money or other important issues are involved). There are three Divisions of the High Court:

The Queen’s Bench Division presided over by the Lord Chief Justice deals with actions for damages arising from torts, breaches of contract and libel. The Court also hears disputes arising from trade and commerce (the Commercial Court) as well as from shipping disputes (the Admiralty Court). Both the Commercial Court and the Admiralty Court have been created as part of the Queen’s Bench Division of the High Court of justice. The Administrative Court in the Queen’s Bench Division deals with a variety of judicial review matters.

The Family Division headed by the President deals with matrimonial and family matters, including issues relating to children, wardship and adoption applications, divorce. It also deals with non-contentious probate, i.e. cases concerned with wills where there is no dispute and, the distribution of estates under the intestacy laws when no will has been made.

The Chancery Division presided over by the Vice-Chancellor has jurisdiction over a wide range of issues, including land matters, trusts, contentious probate, company, partnership and bankruptcy matters as well as intellectual property disputes.

The Family and Chancery Divisions may sit with a High Court judge alone as a Division of the High Court, or with two or more puisne judges as a Divisional Court. The distinction is based on the jurisdiction. When the Divisions of the High Court exercise a supervisory function over lower courts acting as an appellate court they sit as Divisional Courts.

The Crown Court deals with all those criminal cases which the Magistrates are not empowered to deal with. Practically all its work is concerned with cases committed for trial or sentence by the Magistrates or with appeals from their decisions. Although there are 78 centres exercising functions of the Crown Court across England and Wales there is only one Crown Court.

The County Courts, in their present form, were introduced in 1846 by an Act of Parliament. They were intended to provide a means of recovering small debts and to give, in a limited range of cases, similar remedies to those obtained in the High Court. This has remained their main function but they now have jurisdiction to hear a broad spectrum of civil cases, including, within specified limits, virtually all those issues which are covered by the three Divisions of the High Court. An exception is actions founded on defamation, i.e. libel and slander. Applications relating to adoption of children and actions for the possession of property are examples of matters which may be dealt with by the County Courts. In fact about 90 per cent of all civil proceedings are commenced and concluded in these courts.

Generally the County Courts and the High Court have concurrent jurisdiction and a litigant may seek redress from either of the courts, depending, though, on the complexity of the case and the amount of damages claimed. Claims under £50,000 are likely to be dealt with by the County Courts, and those over £50,000 by the High Court.

Each County Court has its own district. Some of the courts’ powers are exercisable only within their district, while others are not subject to territorial limitations. Certain designated County Courts have jurisdiction to deal with divorce and other family matters, insolvency and admiralty matters.

The Magistrates’ Courts deal with minor family matters, some forms of civil debt as well as minor criminal offences that can be tried either way where the defendant has elected to be tried summarily. The magistrates have limited sentencing powers. Where they are of the opinion that the offence deserves a more severe sentence, the magisrates’ court usually sits as a bench of three lay magistrates with a legally qualified clerk to advise them on points of law. Apart from lay magistrates there are also professional magistrates or stipendiaries. A stipendiary magistrate sits alone.

TASK 4. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:

1) shipping disputes	a) гражданско-правовая задолженность
2) wardship and adoption applications	b) дела о наследовании по завещанию, в которых имеет место спор между сторонами
3) non-contentious probate	c) дела о наследовании по завещанию, в которых отсутствует спор между сторонами
4) intestacy laws	d) заявления об установлении опеки/попечительства, об усыновлении
5) contentious probate	e) иски, связанные с защитой права владения имуществом
6) actions for the possession of property	f) магистрат или мировой судья- профессионал
7) concurrent jurisdiction	g) законодательство, регулирующее наследование при отсутствии завещания (наследование по закону)
8) civil debt	h) рассмотреть дело в порядке упрощенного производства
9) stipendiary magistrate	i) совпадающая юрисдикция
10) to try the case summarily	j) споры, связанные с морской перевозкой грузов

TASK 5. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following key words and expressions:

1. апелляционная юрисдикция

2. иск о возмещении убытков

3. гражданский иск

4. усыновление детей

5. полномочия в отношении назначения наказания

6. магистрат или мировой судья (непрофессионал)

7. рядовой судья Высокого суда правосудия

8. направить дело на рассмотрение в суд

9. исполнять судебные функции

10. рассматривать апелляции

11. подать апелляцию

12. рассматривать гражданские споры

13. составить завещание

14. взыскать долг

15. требовать возмещения ущерба

TASK 6. Consult a legal dictionary and explain the meaning the following legal terms:

tort	will
breach of contract	trust
libel	bankruptcy
defamation	intellectual property
slander	insolvency
damages	divorce

TASK 7. The word CASE has the following legal meanings in Russian:

1) судебное дело, судебный процесс

legal case – судебное дело

2) случай, прецедент

to follow the case – следовать прецеденту

3) судебная практика

under the cases – в соответствии с судебной практикой

4) судебный иск

to bring a case – возбудить иск

Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:

1) to argue / plead a case	a) возбудить иск, обвинение, судебное дело
2) to decide a case	b) выиграть дело, выиграть процесс
3) to hear / try a case	c) вынести решение по делу
4) to lose a case	d) рассматривать судебное дело
5) to win a case	e) оспаривать обвинение, выступать в защиту обвиняемого
6) to dismiss a case	f) пересмотреть дело
7) to file a case	g) подать иск
8) to initiate a case	h) прекратить дело
9) to review a case	i) проиграть дело / судебный процесс

TASK 8. Translate the following text into English:

Особенностью Верховного суда Англии и Уэльса является то, что он состоит из трех судов:

• Высокого суда;

• Суда Короны;

• Апелляционного суда.

Высокий суд имеет гражданско-правовую юрисдикцию, Суд Короны – уголовно-правовую, а Апелляционный суд рассматривает жалобы на их решения.

В составе Высокого суда имеется три отделения:

° Отделение королевской скамьи;

° Канцлерское отделение;

° Отделение по семейным делам.

Отделение королевской скамьи рассматривает сложные гражданские дела, в том числе связанные с морскими перевозками и торговлей.

Канцлерское отделение решает дела, касающиеся интеллектуальной собственности (патентного и авторского права), а также дела о доверительном управлении имуществом и банкротстве.

Отделение по семейным делам рассматривает сложные семейные споры.

Суд Короны имеет уголовно-правовую юрисдикцию (в отличие от гражданско-правовой юрисдикции Высокого суда). Дела рассматриваются судьей-профессионалом и присяжными.

Апелляционный суд рассматривает жалобы на решения Высокого суда и Суда Короны.

Farewell to the Traditional System of Justice

or Just a New Supreme Court?

One of the most significant changes in the judicial system of England and Wales is the introduction of a brand new institution, which will be totally different from all the bodies existing within the system so far – the new Supreme Court.

The new Supreme Court is supposed to put the relationship between the executive, the legislature and the judiciary on a modern footing respecting the separation of powers between the three. The functions of the highest courts in the land are currently divided between the House of Lords (the Appellate Committee) and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The Appellate Committee of the House of Lords receives appeals from the courts in England and Wales and Northern Ireland, and in civil cases from Scotland. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, in addition to its overseas and ecclesiastical jurisdiction, considers questions as to whether the devolved administrations, the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly are acting within their legal powers. The Human Rights Act 1998 which made the European Convention on Human Rights a part of English domestic law makes stricter requirements to ensuring independence and impartiality of the judicial system. It raises questions about whether there is sufficient independence from the executive and the legislature when the highest court of appeal is situated within one of the chambers of Parliament. The Government believes that the creation of a separate Supreme Court will be an important part of the reforms which will rearrange the relationship between the Judiciary, the Government and Parliament to preserve and increase independence of English judges.

The idea of the reform of the highest court in the land is about abolishing the jurisdiction of the House of Lords within the UK’s judicial system and vesting the functions currently performed by the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords in a new Supreme Court which will by no means be connected to Parliament. It should be understood that this will not be a Supreme Court based on the US model with the power to strike down and annual legislation and assert the primacy of the constitution. Nor will it be a constitutional court based on the German model or a court which would give definitive rulings on difficult points of law the way the European Court of Justice does. A Supreme Court along one of such models would be a departure from the UK’s constitutional traditions where Parliament is supreme. Regardless of the membership in the European Union and the Human Rights Act this principle remains intact.

As regards the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council it also acts as the final court of appeal for a number of Commonwealth and overseas territory jurisdictions, as well as for the Crown Dependencies. In that capacity, it is acting as a court of appeal for independent jurisdictions and it seems that it is going to continue to provide this important function. Instead of the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary being appointed to the Judicial Committee, the members of the Supreme Court will be so appointed.

The initial members of the new Supreme Court will be the existing Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. The Government proposes that members of the Supreme Court should lose the right to sit and vote in the House while they are members of the Supreme Court. Anyone who is a member of the House before joining the Court will retain the peerage and title, and will be free to return to the House when he or she ceases to sit on the Court. It is proposed that the members of the Court will be appointed on the same basis as senior judges now are. That is, they will be appointed during good behaviour, but may be removed by Her Majesty on the address of both Houses of Parliament. The statutory retirement age is likely to be fixed at 75, so that each member can be assured of comparatively long tenure and the Court enjoys some stability.

The new Supreme Court will be the highest court in all three jurisdictions in the realm, i.e. it will be the supreme court of the United Kingdom. There is, however, already the Supreme Court of England and Wales, which consists of the Court of Appeal, the High Court and the Crown Court by virtue of the Supreme Court Act 1981. In Scotland the term ‘Supreme Court’ has also been used to refer to the Court of Session and the High Court of Justiciary collectively. There is also a Supreme Court of Northern Ireland. However, to avoid confusion, in the future the title of Supreme Court will be reserved for the Court to be created as a result of this constitutional reform. The new Court cannot become part of any of the existing Supreme Court because its authority will extend to all three jurisdictions.

TASK 9. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following key words and expressions and use them in sentences of your own.

1. Верховный уголовный суд Шотландии

2. Сессионный суд (высший суд по гражданским делам в Шотландии)

3. судьи-члены апелляционного комитета палаты лордов

4. старший судья

5. пенсионный возраст

6. внутреннее право государства / внутригосударственное право

7. пребывание в должности

8. действовать в пределах предусмотренной законом компетенции

9. отменять законодательство

10. администрации с делегированными полномочиями

11. занимать должность пожизненно при условии надлежащего поведения

12. предъявлять более строгие требования

13. обеспечивать независимость и беспристрастность судебной системы

14. передать функции новому Верховному суду

15. утверждать верховенство конституции

16. выносить окончательные решения по сложным вопросам права

17. сохранить звание и титул пэра

18. на основании Акта (закона) о Верховном суде

TASK 10. Fill each gap with the appropriate preposition from the box. Some prepositions can be used more than once:

during, in, on, from, within

1. The new Supreme Court is supposed to put the relationship between the executive, the legislature and the judiciary … a modern footing.

2. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council considers questions as to whether the devolved administrations, the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly are acting … their legal powers.

3. The idea of the reform of the highest court in the land is about […] vesting the functions currently performed by the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords … a new Supreme Court.

4. A new Supreme Court would be a departure … the UK’s constitutional traditions.

5. The members of the Court will be appointed … the same basis as senior judges now are, that is, they will be appointed … good behaviour.

TASK 11. Speak on the following in the context of the judicial reform, making use of the key words and expressions in the text.

• The structure of the new Supreme Court, its membership and functions.

• The changes in the House of Lords.

• The role of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

UNIT 10. LEGAL PROFESSION – ‘OUT ON ITS OWN’

The Nature of Legal Profession

Throughout the world, the word “lawyer” is used to mean someone who has legal knowledge or who is engaged in the practice of law. Those unfamiliar with the English system are often confused by the variety of titles used for members of the legal professions. The confusion is not helped by the fact that there are many English words which may denote a lawyer, and different jurisdictions use different titles for lawyers: “advocate, attorney, barrister, solicitor”.

For example, a lawyer in the United States is often called an “attorney”, which in England is a title formerly used by solicitors. Matters are made worse by the fact that not all words have the same meaning in different countries. In England, the word “solicitor” is used to denote the majority of lawyers, whereas in the USA the word “solicitor” generally refers to a door-to-door salesman – which is not how the English solicitor would really like to be considered.

The number of Barristers practicing in England and Wales is 14,000, with 7,200 of those in Greater London. The Law Society reports that for Solicitors, the numbers are 92,753 in England and Wales with 34,693 of those in Greater London (sources: the Bar Council and the Law Society). These are the two principle branches of the legal profession in England and Wales. Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own legal systems, similar but not identical.

Nowadays, the division between solicitors and barristers is quite vague, but generally their functions in law are supposed to be different.

Solicitors are the ‘general practitioners’ in law and in most cases a solicitor is the usual first point of access for a client needing legal services in the United Kingdom. Solicitors give legal advice and prepare legal documents in connection with matters which do not necessarily come to court, such as buying a home, renting out one’s property, renting a home, making a will, getting a divorce, resolving problems at work, setting up in business. They also prepare cases for barristers to conduct in court.

Solicitors generally practice in partnerships and some of the partnerships are now very large multinational organisations.

Barristers are experts in the interpretation of law and advocacy – the art of presenting cases in court. Barristers work mainly in the courts and tribunals. Their work includes presenting evidence, making submissions on behalf of their clients, representing parties in criminal trials, handling domestic disputes in Family Courts, dealing with civil claims for damages and compensations.

Barristers have a relationship with solicitors which is very much akin to that of specialist consultants in medicine to the family doctor. By having such specialists as an independent pool of expertise, the solicitor can choose the best qualified barrister in a specialist area.

Barristers may not practice in partnerships. Instead, they share offices (which they call Chambers) with other barristers, but it is a sharing of expenses only, not of income.

TASK 1. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following key wods and expressions:

1. юридические услуги

2. адвокатская деятельность

3. группа независимых экспертов

4. палаты барристеров

5. специалист широкого профиля

6. вести дело в суде

7. представлять интересы клиентов в суде

8. решать семейные споры

9. вести гражданские иски о возмещении ущерба

TASK 2. Use the key expressions from the text to answer the following questions:

1. What is general meaning of the word “lawyer”? Does it have different meanings in different countries?

2. Can you give your own definition of the word “lawyer”?

3. What are the main features of solicitors’ work?

4. In what ways do the functions of a barrister differ from those of a solicitor?

TASK 3. Read the text and be ready to give an account of the historical origin of the Inns of Court.

The Inns of Court

“… the noblest nurseries of Humanity and Liberty in the kingdom”

Ben Johnson

Behind the scenes of modern legal profession lie centuries of tradition.

The word “barrister” comes from the “bar of the court”, a railing which separates the judges from the litigants and the public. A barrister was a person who pleaded a litigant’s case from the bar of the court. For many years, barristers had a monopoly on the right to present a lay person’s case at a trial before the higher courts in England and Wales.

In the Middle Ages the need for trainee lawyers to learn about the English Common Law led to the founding of hostels where they could live and study. The Inns were like universities where students were provided with accommodation and meals, as well as tuition. Nowadays the Inns have few residents, most of the accommodation being leased to barristers.

There are four Inns of Court: Gray’s Inn, Lincoln’s Inn, Inner Temple and Middle Temple. The Inns provide support for barristers and student barristers through a range of educational activities, lunching and dining facilities, access to common rooms and gardens, and provision of various grants and scholarships. One of the key functions of the Inns is their responsibility for calling barristers to the Bar. Anyone wishing to train for the Bar must join one of the Inns, and it is the Inns alone which have the power to call a student to the Bar.^

Every student who wants to become a barrister has, in addition to passing exams, to attend a certain number of dinners in the Inns of Court. During such dinners junior barristers meet in the Inns with their more experienced colleagues to communicate and gain knowledge in law.^°

There are three categories of membership at the Inns: students, Members of Hall (barristers and Circuit Judges) and Benchers. Benchers are the most senior members and many of them are Judges and Law Lords. There are also Honorary and Royal Benchers.

TASK 4. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the origin of the word “barrister”?

2. What functions did the Inns perform when they were founded?

3. How have these functions changed since the Middle Ages?

4. Why does a student who wants to become a barrister have to attend a certain number of dinners in the Inns?

5. What are the functions of the Bar Council?

TASK 5. Render the following text into English, paying special attention to segments in bold type: