Принятие нового закона

Проект нового закона является парламентским Биллем, который должен пройти через все стадии обсуждения, изменения и принятия, а также получить Королевскую санкцию, что является формальностью. Затем Билль становится Законом и вступает в силу в день одобрения Королевой.

Билли рассматриваются в парламенте в следующих случаях: когда прежний закон должен быть изменен, так как он устарел, когда он не соответствует европейскому законодательству и когда правительство имеет основания для принятия нового закона.

Стадия подготовки

Билль разрабатывается членами Парламентского Совета, которые являются государственными служащими. Он отражает мнение правительства и может проходить дальнейшую доработку в Кабинете Министров и в Королевской Комиссии, прежде чем быть представленным в парламент.

Рассмотрение Билля в Палате Общин

Первое чтение

Рассмотрение Билля включают в ежедневную повестку заседания нижней палаты, с пометкой «Формальное первое чтение: никаких обсуждений». В день обсуждения Спикер получает проект Билля, и по его распоряжению секретарь зачитывает название билля. После этого назначается день предполагаемого второго чтения и поступает распоряжение для распечатки Билля для всех членов нижней палаты.

Второе чтение

После публикации Билля и проверки его на соответствие правилам палаты, Билль переходит к следующей важной стадии – второму чтению. Правительство рекомендует назначать второе чтение через две недели после опубликования Билля, хотя это правило не всегда соблюдается. Второе чтение – это стадия, на которой палата обсуждает принципы Билля. На этой стадии Билли как правило принимаются. За последние тридцать лет принятие Биллей было отклонено на этом этапе только дважды.

Стадия рассмотрения законопроекта в комитете

Следующая стадия работы над Биллем называется стадией рассмотрения в комитете. Комитет подробно рассматривает весь Билль, изменяя его при необходимости по своему усмотрению. Билль обсуждается в постоянном комитете, однако на этой стадии он может внести свою лепту в обсуждение и изменение Билля. Иногда Билли могут быть направлены на рассмотрение в выборный комитет, но это случается очень редко. Измененный Билль перепечатывают, и ему присваивается новый номер.

Доклад

На данной стадии анализируется поправки, предложенные комитетом. В это время могут быть внесены новые поправки, а также могут быть добавлены новые разделы. Все члены палаты могут высказать свое мнение.

Третье чтение

Последняя стадия прохождения Билля в Палате Общин, третье чтение, следует сразу за докладом. На этой стадии вся палата обсуждает Билль и принимает решение о его принятии или неприятии, но уже не изменяет его содержания. Третье чтение Биллей, не связанных с политикой и руководством страны, обычно проходит очень быстро.

Рассмотрение Билля в Палате Лордов

Одобренный нижней палатой Билль отправляют в Палату Лордов, где он проходит практически такие же стадии, что и в Палате Общин. Отличия состоят в том, что после второго чтения Билль рассматривается комитетом всей палаты; нет предельного срока для обсуждений и изменений Билля; изменения могут производиться и на стадии третьего чтения.

Обе палаты должны прийти к единому варианту текста Билля. Если лорды предлагают поправки к Биллю, он отправляется на рассмотрение в Палату Общин, члены которой могут согласиться или не согласиться с внесенными изменениями. Если члены двух палат не могут прийти к единому решению, то к рассмотрению принимается вариант Палаты Общин. После этого Билль отправляется на одобрение королеве.

Королевская санкция

Королева должна одобрить или отклонить Билль. На дано стадии Билли не отклонялись с 1707 года, поэтому сейчас это простая формальность. Одобренный Билль становится Законом, и под соответствующим номером включается в свод законов.

Вступление Закона в силу

Некоторые законы вступают в силу немедленно после одобрения королевой, другие – в день, указанный в законе, а третьи могут вступать в силу по частям в определенные дни, оговоренные отдельным указом.

UNIT 4. GOVERNMENT – A CHAIR OF AUTHORITY

The Prime Minister and the Cabinet

The Prime Minister is the most senior officer of Her Majesty’s Government. The full title of the office is Prime Minister, First Lord of the Treasury, and Minister for the Civil Service of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The Prime Minister’s main responsibilities include: running the Government; appointing Cabinet Ministers and other ministers; coordinating the activities of the Cabinet and Government Departments; appointing judges, creating Life Peers and making appointments to senior positions in the Church of England; leading the majority party; being the ‘face’ of the government in the UK and abroad.

The Prime Minister is technically appointed by the Monarch. The appointment takes place after the results of a General Election indicate which political party wins the majority of seats in the House of Commons. After a General Election, the Queen calls upon the leader of the largest party to officially appoint him to a post of a Prime Minister, who the forms the Government and the Cabinet.

In theory, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is a primus inter pares (first among equals) in the British Cabinet. In appointing a Cabinet the Prime Minister generally includes members of parliament who gave political bases of their own and who could potentially be a rival of the Prime Minister. However, in practice, a strong Prime Minister can so dominate government that he becomes a ‘semi-president’, and fulfils the leadership role in a country in the same way as presidents do. Examples include William Ewart Gladstone, David Lloyd George, Winston Churchill, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair.

The Cabinet is composed of about 20 ministers, although the number can vary. It must be large enough to include senior ministers whilst small enough to allow for constructive discussions. There is no limit on the size of the Cabinet, but the number of salaried members is restricted by the 1975 Ministerial and Other Salaries Act.

The functions of the Cabinet are to initiate and decide on policy, to exercise the supreme control of government and to coordinate Government Departments. The exercise of these functions is vitally affected by the fact that the Cabinet is a group of party representatives, depending upon majority support in the House of Commons.

The cabinet meets in private and its proceedings are confidential. Its members are bound by an oath not to disclose information about its proceedings, although after 30 years Cabinet papers may be made available for inspection in the Public Record Office.

Normally the Cabinet meets for a few hours each week on a Thursday morning at No. 10 Downing Street during parliamentary sittings, and rather less often when Parliament is not sitting. The Prime Minister can summon the Cabinet to meet at any time and meetings will be more frequent when the political situation so requires. It is the Prime Minister’s duty to meet the Queen during the weekly audiences and inform her about the business of Government.

To keep its workload within manageable limits, a great deal of work is carried on through the committee system. This involves referring issues either to a Standing Cabinet Committee or to an ad hoc committee composed of the ministers directly concerned. The committee then considers the matter in detail and either disposes of it or reports upon it to the Cabinet with recommendations for action.

Departmental ministers normally decide all matters within their responsibility. However, on important political matters they usually consult their colleagues collectively, either through the Cabinet or through a Cabinet committee. A decision by a departmental minister binds the Government as a whole.

Cabinet ministers are responsible for their departments, but the Cabinet as a whole is accountable to Parliament for its actions, and its individual members must be willing and able to publicly defend the Cabinet’s policies both in the Commons and before the general public. The loss of a vote of confidence or the defeat of a major legislative bill in the Commons can mean a Cabinet’s fall from power and the collective resignation of its members. Despite the need for consensus and collective action within a cabinet, ultimate decision-making power rests with the prime Minister as the leader of his party.

TASK 1. Using additional sources, prepare a presentation about one of the best known British Prime Ministers. You may find useful information on the following website: htt://www.britannia.com/gov/primes/

TASK 2. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following key words and expressions:

1. постоянно действующий комитет

2. специальный комитет

3. вотум доверия

4. всеобщие выборы

5. самый старший по должности чиновник

6. государственный архив Великобритании

7. отставка Кабинета министров

8. назначать на посты членов Кабинета министров

9. быть связанным присягой

10. согласовывать деятельность Министерств

11. провалить законопроект

12. обнародовать информацию

13. возглавлять партию большинства

14. заседать при закрытых дверях

15. руководить деятельностью правительства

TASK 3. Use the key expressions from the text to answer the following questions:

1. What are the major functions of the Prime Minister in the UK?

2. Which of his/her functions are reflected in his full title?

3. How does the Prime Minister take office?

4. What is understood by the phrase ‘primus inter pares’? Is this principle always observed in the real day-to-day work of the government?

5. How is the Cabinet formed?

6. What are the functions of the Cabinet?

7. How is the confidentiality of Cabinet proceedings guaranteed?

8. How does the committee system ease the workload of the Cabinet?

9. What are individual ministers within the Cabinet responsible for? How is the government accountable to the people?

10. Who holds the ultimate decision-making power in Government?

TASK 4. Read the following text and answer the question: ‘Are there any advantages in a ‘single-party government’?

The Principles of Government

Partly as a result of the electoral system, Britain, unlike much of Western Europe, normally has a ‘single-party government’. In other words, all members of the government in Britain whose members were drawn from a variety of different parties (this is known as ‘coalition government’).

The habit of a ‘single-party government’ has helped to establish the tradition known as collective responsibility. That is, every member of the government shares the responsibility for every policy made by the government. Since the Second World War, all governments have been formed either by the Labour Party or the Conservative Party. Members of the same party are likely to agree on a programme of policies. Having won the election, they will also have the support of the majority of MPs in the House of Commons. This will enable them to put their policies into practice. Of course, individual government members may hold different opinions, but they are expected to keep these private. By convention, no member of the government can criticize government policy in public. Any member who does so must resign.

Another principle of the Cabinet’s work, the doctrine of ministerial responsibility, demands that a Minister should accept a full administrative responsibility for the administration of his/her department. A minister’s resignation is the only publicly acceptable course of action if grievous errors of judgement, significant mistakes, or miscarriages of justice occur. The doctrine provides direct and effective political accountability for the actions of the executive. It is one of the central components of the doctrine of the separation of powers which is itself a cornerstone of any democratic and responsible government.

TASK 5. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following key words and expressions:

1. доктрина политической ответственности министров

2. доктрина коллективной ответственности министров

3. доктрина разделения властей

4. однопартийное правительство

5. коалиционное правительство

6. судебная ошибка

7. нести общую ответственность

8. проводить в жизнь политику

9. придерживаться различных мнений

TASK 6. Complete the following text with the words and phrases from the box:

Parliament; failure in administration; ministerial responsibility; Departmental Ministers; Government’s policy; House of Commons; collective responsibility

The doctrine of _______ ________ means that the Cabinet acts unanimously even when Cabinet Ministers do not all agree on a subject. The policy of ________ ________ must be consistent with the policy of the Government as a whole. Once the _________ __________ on a matter has been decided, each minister is expected to support it or resign.

The doctrine of ________ ________ means that ministers are answerable to ________ for all their departments’ activities. They bear the consequences of any ________ __ _________, any injustice to an individual or any aspect of policy which may be criticized in Parliament, whether personally responsible or not. Since most ministers are members of the ________ __ ________, they must answer questions and defend themselves against criticism in person.

TASK 7. Read the text and be ready to speak on the functions of the key Government Departments:

Government Departments

Most Cabinet ministers are heads of Government Departments. Governing in the 21^st century is a very complicated business. The work of Government is, therefore, divided among Departments each specializing in a particular subject, e.g. defence, education, trade and industry. The number and responsibilities of Government Departments can be changed by the Prime Minister according to the needs of the country.

These are the key Government Departments:

• Her Majesty’s Treasury is responsible for formulation and putting into effect the UK Government’s financial and economy policy. The Treasury works to achieve economic stability, low inflation, sound public finances, efficient public services and a more productive economy. The Minister in charge is the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Prime Minister is its political head.

• The Cabinet Office supports the Prime Minister in ensuring that the government delivers its priorities, particularly in relation to health, education, transport and crime policies. It provides secretarial support to the Cabinet and services Cabinet committees, where ministers work together on key issues. It also provides practical advice and support on the machinery of government.

• The Home Office is responsible for internal affairs in England and Wales. It seeks to promote a safe, just and tolerant society through its policies to reduce crime, deliver justice and regulate entry to the United Kingdom. It is headed by the Home Secretary.

• The Ministry of Defence provides the defence capabilities to ensure the security and defence of the United Kingdom and the Overseas Territories. It supports the government’s foreign policy objectives, particularly those relating to peace and security. It is headed by the Secretary of State for Defence.

• The Foreign and Commonwealth Office promotes UK interests abroad and works with international bodies to support a strong world community. The FCO is responsible for the conduct of business with other governments and international organisations. This includes developing Britain’s role as a member of the European Union, the Commonwealth and the United Nations Organisation. The Minister responsible is the Foreign Secretary.

The above list is not comprehensive. There are several other lesser known ministries.

The ministers in charge of Departments are usually of Cabinet rank. They are chosen for their special interest in, or knowledge of, the subjects handled by the Department. They are usually assisted by one or more junior ministers who are not in the Cabinet. The majority of the Government members belong to the House of Commons, but major Departments often have at least one minister who is a Lord. While ministers act as political heads of Government Departments, the actual administration of the departments is carried out by civil servants also known as permanent secretaries.

As well as government departments there are government agencies formed to operate public services, e.g., the Post Office, British Rail, etc. Most of these agencies are subject to the control of one of the government departments.

TASK 8. Translate the following terms into Russian. Bear in mind that these terms are peculiarly British.

1. Government Departments

2. Cabinet Office

3. Her Majesty’s Treasury

4. the Chancellor of the Exchequer

5. the Home Office

6. the Home Secretary

7. the Ministry of Defence

8. the Secretary of State for Defence

9. the Foreign and Commonwealth Office

10. the Foreign Secretary

TASK 9. List the main powers of the Privy Council and prove that its duties are largely formal and ceremonial. Speak on the role of the Judicial Committee.

The Privy Council

Historically the Privy Council was the name given to the group of ministers who acted as chief advisers to the King or Queen. As the power of the monarch declined the Cabinet replaced the Privy Council as the senior decision-making body.

Today the Privy Council’s duties are largely formal and ceremonial. It has about three hundred members, including all Cabinet members (past and present), the leaders of all the main parties, and the Speaker. Its formal tasks include advising the monarch on a range of matters, like the resolution of constitutional issues and the approval of Orders in Council, such as the granting of Royal Charters to public bodies. The most important task of the Privy Council today is performed by its Judicial Committee. This serves as the final court of appeal from the dependencies and Commonwealth countries. It may also act as an arbiter for a wide range of courts and committees in Britain and overseas, and its rulings can be influential. The office of Privy Councillor is an honorary one, conferred, for example, on former Prime Ministers. In the House of Commons a Privy Councillor will take precedence over a normal MP when the Speaker calls MPs to speak, and may speak for longer. Privy Councillors are referred to in the Commons as “Right Honourable” members.

Membership of the Council, which is retained for life, except for very occasional removals, is granted by the Sovereign, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, to people eminent in public life in Britain and the independent monarchies of the Commonwealth. Cabinet ministers must be Privy Councillors and, if not already members, are admitted to membership before taking their oaths of office at a meeting of the Council. Full meetings of the Privy Council occur only on the death of a monarch and the accession of a new monarch, when the Council issues a proclamation of the accession and announces the name of the new Sovereign.

UNIT 5. POLITICAL PARTIES – UPS AND DOWNS

TASK 1. Read the following texts and translate the extracts given in bold.

The Major Political Parties

British parliamentary democracy has traditionally been dominated by the two-party system, with two main parties forming the government and the official Opposition. Over the years these have been Whigs and Tories, i.e. Liberals and Conservatives and, since the development of the Labour Party at the beginning of the 20^th century, Labour and Conservatives. A number of other parties have also won seats in Parliament.

Nowadays there are three major national political parties in the United Kingdom. They are:

• The Labour Party

• The Conservative Party

• The Liberal Democrats

The main parties in Britain have the following political priorities:

The Labour Party

“We want to create a community in which power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of the many not the few, where the rights we enjoy reflect the duties we owe, and where we live together freely, in a spirit of solidarity, tolerance and respect.”

The Labour Party seeks to achieve:

• a dynamic economy serving the public interest;

• a just society, which judges its strength by the condition of the weak as much as the strong;

• an open democracy, in which government is held to account by the people;

• a healthy environment, which has to be protected, enhanced and held in trust for future generations.

The Conservative Party

“It’s time for a Government that will deliver. It’s time to support marriage and the family; time for a war on crime; time to cut taxes; time for our schools and hospitals to benefit from choice and freedom; time to show respect to our pensioners; time for real savings, not welfare dependency; time to endow our universities; time to be in Europe, but not run by it. It’s time for common sense.”

The fundamental principles of the Conservative Party can be summarized as follows:

• individuals have an absolute right to liberty;

• ownership is the strongest foundation of individual freedom, opportunity and independency;

• the role of government is to strengthen individual liberty and choice;

• in economic affairs the Government should establish a climate in which enterprise can flourish.

The Liberal Democrats

“The Liberal Democrats exist to build and safeguard a fair, free and open society, in which we seek to balance the fundamental values of liberty, equality and community, and in which no-one shall be enslaved by poverty, ignorance or conformity. We champion the freedom, dignity and well-being of individuals. We believe that the role of the state is to enable all citizens to attain these ideals, to contribute fully to their communities and to take part in the decisions which affect their lives.”

The Liberal democrats stand for the right of individuals to have control over their own lives:

• individual liberty lies at the heart of society;

• the main aim is to enable men and women to develop their own talents to the full, free from arbitrary interference of government;

• the role of the government is to guarantee this freedom, to create an enterprise, competitive market-based economy.

Other political parties include two nationalist parties, Plaid Cymru (the Welsh nationalist party) and the Scottish National Party.

In Northern Ireland there are a number of parties. They include the Ulster Unionist Party, the Democratic Unionist Party, the Social Democratic and Labour Party, and Sinn Fein.

TASK 2. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following key words and expressions and use them in the sentences referring to political parties in your country:

1. основные принципы

2. борьба с преступностью

3. основа свободы личности

4. благосостояние людей

5. рыночная экономика

6. быть избранным в Парламент

7. нести ответственность перед народом

8. сократить налоги

9. защищать свободу

10. защищать права личности

TASK 3. Using additional sources, prepare a presentation about one of the major political parties in Great Britain. You may find useful information on the following websites:

htt://www.labour.org.uk

htt://www.conservatives.com

htt://www.libdems.org.uk

TASK 4. Study the following text and be ready to describe the landmarks in the history of British political parties.

From the History of British Political Parties

For a long time, the two main parties were the Tories (now the Conservative Party) and the Whigs (now the Liberal Democrats). The terms Tory and Whig were originally insults: a “whiggamor” was a cattle driver, and a “tory” was an Irish term for an outlaw.

Traditionally the Tories were associated with the gentry, favouring agricultural interests and the Church of England, while the Whigs were more linked with trade, money, larger land holders (or “land magnates”). Both were committed to the political system in place, but neither group could be considered a true political party in the modern sense.

In the 18^th century the Tory Party experienced its ups and downs. In the 19^th century it picked up and became known as the Conservative Party (the word “conservative” first came into use in 1830s). After becoming associated with repression of popular discontent in the early 19^th century, the Tories underwent a fundamental transformation under the influence of Sir Robert Peel, himself an industrialist rather than a landowner, who outlined a new “Conservative” philosophy of reforming ills while conserving the good.

Whigs were traditionally in opposition to the Tory Party. Initially they controlled the government, but later developed into the minority party until 1830. During the next few years, the Whigs became known as the Liberal Party. The term “Liberal Party” was first used officially in the late 19^th century, though it was used colloquially for decades beforehand.

In the 20^th century the Labour Party was established (1906), leading to the demise of the Whigs as the liberal force in British politics. The existence of the Labour Party on the left of British politics caused a slow waning of energy from the Liberal movement.

Throughout the second half of the 20^th century Labour governments alternated with Conservative governments. The Conservatives were in power for most of the time, with the Labour Party suffering the “wilderness years” of 1950s and the late 20^th century (several General Election defeats). In 1979 Margaret Thatcher became leader of the Conservative party and made a fundamental change to Conservative policies, turning the Conservative Party into a right-wing radical body. Her successor John Major pursued radical policies of privatization, anti-trade-union legislation and monetarism, otherwise known as Thatcherism.

The Labour Party responded to Margaret Thatcher’s government by moving the party further to the left, which split it and made it unelectable for a decade.

In response to the leftward shift of the Labour party some moderate party members formed a breakaway group, called the Social Democratic Party, as a centrist alternative to the Labour and the Conservatives. It eventually merged with the Liberal Party to form the Liberal Democrats (1988). Support for the new party has increased ever since, and the Liberal Democrats (often referred to as LibDems) in 2001 won a record number of seats in the House of Commons.

Tony Blair became leader of the Labour party in 1994. in 1997 Labour won the General Election with a historic landslide result. The Labour Party consolidated its position in 2001, winning a second consecutive general Election – the first time ever achievement for the Labour Party.

This led to a crisis of confidence in the Conservative Party, which had become complacent with its position as the ‘natural party of government’ after its 18 years of power. The recent Conservative Party’s drift to the right as well as leadership problems lost it a large number of voters, which means that its present leader has taken on a challenging role of improving the party’s image.

TASK 5. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following words and expressions:

1. поражение на выборах

2. всеобщие выборы

3. недовольство народа

4. укрепить положение

5. внести существенные изменения в политику (партии)

6. проводить радикальную политику

7. победить на выборах

TASK 6. Explain the meaning of the following phrases from the text:

1. reforming ills while conserving the good

2. demise of the Whigs as the liberal force in British politics

3. a slow waning of energy from the Liberal movement

4. to suffer the “wilderness years”

5. to make a party unelectable

6. to win an election with a landslide result

7. to become complacent with one’s position

8. ‘natural party of government’

ANALYTICAL DEVELOPMENT Using additional sources, prepare a presentation about one of the major political parties in your country

UNIT 6. GENERAL ELECTION – THE ART OF ‘PUBLIC RELATIONS’

General election

The democracy in Britain is long-established. It is sustained by free elections, freedom of speech and open and equal treatment before the law.

The procedure is that , at a general election held a maximum of five years apart, the people elect Members of Parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons. The United Kingdom is divided into 646 geographical areas known as constituencies, each of them sending one MP to the House of Commons. A general election is held in all the constituencies. Most of the candidates in the election represent a political party but there can also be independent candidates. Each voter gets one vote which they allocate to one of the candidates standing for Parliament in their local constituency. The candidate with the largest number of votes is elected to be the Member of Parliament for the constituency. Thus each MP in the House of Commons represents one of the constituencies, or ‘seats’, in the UK Parliament and is also normally a member of one of the major political parties.

The principle behind the election is called “the simple majority system”. This means that the candidate with the largest number of votes in each constituency is elected, although he or she may not necessarily have received more than half the votes cast. It is thought that this system favours two-party competition, particularly when the parties’ support is concentrated geographically.

The timing of a general election depends on the following factors:

• Any Prime Minister will hope that his or her party is re-elected at the next general election so they will try to choose a time when the party is popular and opinion polls suggest that it will be successful.

• It is a convention that if a government is defeated in the House of Commons on a vote of confidence, then a general election will follow. In 1979 the Conservative Opposition defeated the Labour Government by 311-310 votes on the motion “That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty’s Government”. Parliament was dissolved and the general election held.

TASK 1. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following words and expressions and use them in the sentences referring to election campaign in your country:

1. избирательный округ

2. избиратель

3. расходы на предвыборную кампанию

4. опрос общественного мнения

5. вотум доверия

6. выставлять свою кандидатуру на выборах в Парламент

7. распустить парламент

8. голосовать

9. поддерживать демократию

10. поддерживать партию

TASK 2. Answer the following questions:

1. What is your understanding of the concept equal treatment before the law?

2. How often is a general election held?

3. What is the role of the constituencies in an election process?

4. In your opinion, why an independent candidate should be able to stand for Parliament?

5. What are the benefits of the simple majority system?

6. Which factors affect the timing of a general election?

TASK 3. Translate the following text into English in writing: