UNIT1 THEORY AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD

LEAD-IN

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Whether you are studying photosynthesis, butterflies, Saturn's moon, or human development, it is the way you study that makes the approach scientific or not. Could you name the key ingredients of a scientific approach? Can a discipline that studies how babies develop, adolescents' thoughts change, adults form relationships, and aging adults engage in self-control, be equated with disciplines that investigate the molecular structure of a compound and how gravity works?

List five traits that describe a typical scientist and five that describe a typical psychologist.

READING Find the meaning of the main issues of the to develop to influence to expose to discover to contribute to attend to enroll to indicate to forego to dwell to revise to widen to achieve to involve to detest to tie to predict

dictionary and guess

particular (adj) prone (adj) elderly (adj) dissatisfied (adj) abnormal (adj) ' unusual (adj) unnatural (adj) frequent (adj) disturbing (adj) cognitive (adj)

the following words in the text.

area (n)

development (n)

experience (n)

accuracy (n)

shortcomings (n)

conclusions (n)

skills (n)

underestimation (n)

schooling (n)

expatriate (n)

outbursts (n)

departure (n)

unconscious (n)

emphasis (n)

self(n)

identity (n)

overexaggeration (n)

Read the text and find the words given above in it.

TEXT

According to nineteenth-century French mathematician Henri Poincare, "Science is built of facts the way a house is built of bricks, but an accumulation of facts is no more science than a pile of bricks a house." Science does depend upon the raw material of facts or data, but as Poincare indicated, science is more than just facts. As you will soon learn, psychology's tiieories are more than just facts; they are the mortar that tie the facts together.

A theory is a coherent sst of ideas that helps to explain data and to make predictions. A theory has hypotheses, assumptions that can be tested to determine their accuracy. For example, a theory about depression among the elderly would explain our observations of depressed elderly individuals and predict why elderly people get depressed. We might predict that elderly individuals get depressed because they fail to focus on their strengths but instead dwell excessively on their shortcomings. This prediction would help to direct our observations by telling us to look for overexaggerations of weaknesses and underestimations of strengths and skills.

The scientific method is an approach that can be used to discover accurate information about behavior and development, which includes the following steps: identify and analyze the problem, collect data, draw conclusions, and revise theories.

Imagine thai: you have developed a major theory of development What would influence someone like you to constnict this theory? A person interested in developing such a theory usually goes through a long university training program that culminates in a doctoral degree. As part of the training, the future theorist is exposed to many ideas about a particular area of development, such as biological, cognitive, or socioemotional development. Another factor that could explain why someone develops a particular theory is that person's life-experiences. Two important developmental theorists, whose views we will describe later in the chapter, are Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget. Let's examine a portion of their lives as they were growing up to discover how their experiences might have contributed to the theories they developed.

Erik Homberger Erikson was born in 1902 near Frankfort, Germany, to Danish parents. Before Erik was bom, his parents separated and his mother left Denmark to live in Germany. At age 3, Erik became ill, and his mother took him to see a pediatrician named Homberger. Young Erik's mother fell in love with the pediatrician, married him, and named Erik after his new stepfather.

Erik attended primary school from age 6 to 10 and then the gymnasium (high school) from 11 to 18. He studied art and a number of languages rather than science courses such as biology and chemistry. Erik did not like the atmosphere of formal schooling, and this was reflected in his grades. Rather than go to college at age 18, the adolescent Erikson wandered around Europe, keeping a diary about his experiences. After a year of travel through Europe, he returned to Germany and enrolled in art school, became dissatisfied, and enrolled in another. Later he traveled to Florence, Italy. Psychiatrist Robert Coles described Erikson at this time:

To the Italians he was... ■ friends as not odd or "sick"

the young, tall, thin Nordic but as a wandering artist who

expatriate with long, blond was trying to come to grips

hair. He wore a corduroy suit with himself, a not unnatural

and was seen by his family and or unusual struggle. (Coles, 1970 15)

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The second major theorist whose life we will examine is Jean Piaget. Piaget (1896-1980) was born in Neuchalel, Switzerland. Jean's father was an intellectual who taught young Jean to think systematically. Jean's mother was also very bright. His father had an air of detachment from his mother, whom Piaget described as prone to frequent outbursts of neurotic behavior. « In his autobiography, Piaget detailed why he chose to study cognitive

development rather than social or abnormal development: 1 started to forego playing for Though this interest helped

serious work very early. me to achieve independence

Indeed, I have always detested and widen my cultural

any departure from reality, an background, 1 have never

attitude which I relate to... since felt any desire to involve

my mothers poor health. It myself deeper in that

was this disturbing factor particular direction, always

which at the beginning of my much preferring the study of

studies in psychology made normalcy and of the workings

me keenly interested in of the intellect to that of the

psychoanalytic and tricks of the unconscious,

pathological psychology. (Piaget, 1952a, p. 238)

These excerpts from Erikson's and Piaget's lives illustrate how personal experiences might influence the direction in which a.particular theorist goes. Erikson's own y/anderings and search for self contributed to his theory of identity development, and perhaps Piaget's intellectual experiences with his parents and schooling contributed to his emphasis on cognitive development.

READING COMPREHESICTN

I. Decide which of the choices a, b, c or d is the correct answer.

1. A person interested in developing a theory goes through all but which of the following

1. a long university training program

2. examining his own experiences

3. ignoring any background information in a particular area to research

4. various ideas about a particular field of investigation

2. E. Erikson's father was

1. Gentian c) French

2. Danish d) Dutch

3. Erikson attended primary school and gymnasium at which he studied

1. humanitarian subjects c) art

2. science d) foreign languages

4. J. Piaget chose to study cognitive rather than social or abnormal development because

a) he wasn't interested in psychoanalytic and pathological psychology.

2. his father taught him to think systematically

3. he detested his parents.

4. he never felt any desire to involve himself in the pathological psychology. II. Decide which of the sentences are correct.

Write (T) - True, or (F) - False

1. E. Erikson was born in Denmark.

2. E. Erikson and J. Piaget are two important developmental theorists, whose experiences might have contributed to the theories they developed.

3. Erikson was brilliant at science courses such as biology and chemistry.

4. The atmosphere of formal schooling reflected in Erickson's grades.

5. At the age of 18 Erikson went to college.

6. J. Piaget was born in Switzerland.

7. Piaget's father had frequent outbursts of neurotic behaviour.

8. Piaget related the fact that he detested any departure from reality to his mother's poor health.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE

1. Fill the correct word from the list. Find the sentences in the text to prove your choice.

Major, university training, doctoral, particular, developmental, primary, science, wandering, neurotic, abnormal, pathological, cultural, personal, cognitive. l._ ___ development 7. experiences

2. theory 8. courses

3. _ degree 9. area

4. theorists 10. program

5. _ _____ behaviour 11. school

6. psychology

2. Choose a correct preposition or a particle to complete the following sentences.

1. A person interested ... developing a theoiy usually goes ... a long university training program that culminates ... a doctoral degree.

2. Erikson's and Piaget's lives might have contributed .... the theories they developed.

3. As part of the training, a future theorist is exposed ... many ideas about a particular area of development.

4. Erikson returned ... Germany and enrolled ... art: school, became dissatisfied and enrolled ... another.

5. Piaget's mother was prone ... frequent outbursts of neurotic behaviour.

6. Piaget didn't feel any desire to involve himself ... deep pathological psychology.

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7. Piaget detested any departure ... reality, an attitude which he related ... his

mother's poor health.

8. Science doesn't depend ... the raw material of facts and data.

9. Science is built ... facts the way a house is built ... bricks. 3. Build your vocabulary.

Use: -ical, -al, -ed, -ive, -ing to form adjectives from the following words:

To satisfy, pathology, biology, development, culture, person, cognition, to

wander.

FOLLOW UP

I. Discuss the following issues: i)

1. Explain how one's experience might influence one's view on child development.

2. Define and distinguish among theory, hypotheses, and scientific method.

3. How did Erikson's personal search for self influence his psychological theory? How did Piaget's intellectual experiences motivate his cognitive developmental theory?

4. Write Erikson's and Piaget's biographies (120 - 150 words), following tips for writing, and the plan given below.

Plan.

Introduction

(Para 1) name of person - what famous for

Main Body

(Para 2) early years (when/where born, education, etc.)

(Para 3) later years (marriage, achievements? etc.)

Conclusion

(Para 4) data of death, comments.

UNIT 2 LEAD-IN

1. Which of the following is true about theories to explain life-span development?

1. if the theorists keep working they will eventually come up with one theory that explains development

2. cognitive, psychoanalytic, and humanistic theories have nothing in common and can never be reconciled

3. The dieories proposed should be thought of as complementary rather than competitive

4. one theory from biology, one theory from cognitive psychology, and one theory from social psychology are all enough to explain development

READING

Find the meaning of the following words in the dictionary and guess

the main issues of the text.

to crop up to rethink to keep from to account for to disagree about to be colored by to be highlighted to sense to resolve to alert to push out to emerge to deal with

undertaking challenging

landscape multifaced

awareness frustrated

mind complementary

demand contradictory

branch

decision

conscience

constraints

pursuit

Read the text and find the words given above in it.

TEXT

The diversity of theories makes understanding life-span development a challenging undertaking. Just when you think one theory has the correct explanation of life-span development, another theory crops up and makes you rethink your earlier conclusion. To keep from getting frustrated, remember that life-span development is a complex, multifaceted topic and no single theory has been able to account for all aspects of it. Each theory has contributed an important piece to the life-span development puzzle. While the theories sometimes disagree about certain aspects of life-span development, much of their

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r*sychoanalytk Theories

For psychoanalytic theorists, development is primarily unconscious - that is, beyond awareness - and is heavily colored by emotion.' Psychoanalytic theorists believe that behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that to truly understand development we have to analyze the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind. Psychoanalytic theorists also stress that early experiences with parents extensively shape our development. These characteristics are highlighted in the main psychoanalytic theory, that of Sigmund Freud.

Freud's Theory

Freud (1856-1939) developed his ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients. He was a medical doctor who specialized in neurology. He spent most of his years in Vienna, though he moved to London near the end of his career because of the Nazis' anti-Semitism.

Freud (1917) believed that personality has three structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the Freudian structure of personality that consists of instincts, which are an individual's reservoir of psychic energy. In Freud's view, the id is totally unconscious; it has no contact with reality. As children experience the demands and constraints of reality, a new structure of personality emerges -the ego, the Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. The ego is called the "executive branch" of personality, because it makes rational decisions. The id and the ego have no morality. They do not take into account whether something is right or wrong. The superego is the Freudian structure of personality that is the moral branch of personality and does take into account whether something is right or wrong. Think of the superego as what we often refer to as our "conscience."-You probably are beginning to sense that both the id and the superego make life rough for the ego. Your ego might say, "I will have sex only occasionally and be sure to take the proper precautions, because I don't want the intrusion of a child in the development of my career." However, your id is saying, "I want to be satisfied; sex is pleasurable." Your superego is at work too: "I feel guilty about having sex."

Remember that Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg; most of personality exists below our level of awareness, just as the massive part of an iceberg is beneath the surface of the water.

Conscious and unconscious processes: The iceberg analogy. This rather odd-looking diagram illustrates Freud's belief that most of the important personality processes occur below the level of conscious awareness. In examining people's conscious thoughts and their behaviors, we can see some reflections of the ego and the superego. Whereas the ego and superego are partly

How does the ego resolve the conflict between its demands for reality, the wishes of the id, and constraints of the superego? Through defense mechanisms, the psychoanalytic term for unconscious methods, the ego distorts reality, thereby protecting it from anxiety. In Freud's view, the conflicting demands of the personality structures produce anxiety. For example, when the ego blocks the pleasurable pursuits of the id, inner anxiety is felt. This diffuse, distressed state develops when the ego senses that the id is going to cause harm to the individual. The anxiety alerts the ego to resolve the conflict by means of defense mechanisms.

They cannot scare me with their empty spaces Between stars - on stars where no human race is. I have it in me so much nearer home To scare myself with my own desert places.

Robert Frost Repression is the most powerful and pervasive defense mechanism, according to Freud; it works to push unacceptable id impulses out of awareness and back' into the unconscious mind. Repression is the foundation from which all other defense mechanisms work; the goal of every defense mechanism is to repress, or push threatening impulses out of awareness. Freud said that our early childhood experiences, many of which he believed were sexually laden, are too threatening and stressful for us to deal with consciously. We reduce the anxiety of this conflict through the defense mechanism of repression.

I. Find the following expressions in the text and try to explain their meaning

1. To make smth a challenging undertaking

2. An important piece to the life-span development puzzle

3. To disagree about certain aspect of...

4. The total landscape of the development

5. To take into account (wether something is right or wrong)

6. To make life rough for smb (smth)

7. To cause sfyarm to smb

8. To reduce anxiety through (smth)

II. Decide which of the choices a, b, c,d\s the correct answer

1. Psychoanalytic theorists analyze primarily

1. emotions

2. inner workings of the mind

3. behaviour

4. mental disoders -/w*7 deS^f

2. The best way to keepVTiustrated in explanation of life-span development is

1. to follow one theory

2. to discard all existing theories and constrict the new one

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3. to revise theories considering them complementary rather than contradictory

4. to revise theories considering them contradictory ►

3. Developing a study schedule is mostly a function of the

1. id

2. ego

3. superego

4. ego-idea]

4. According to Freud, an individual's reservoir of psychic is

1. id

2. ego

3. superego

4. defense mechanism

5. Freud considered personality to be like an iceberg, which exists

1. mostly be n.e:ith

2. mostly on surface

3. half below and half on die surface

III. Decide which of the sentences are correct. Write (T) - true, or (F)- false.

1. The existing theories disagree about certain aspects of life-span development, and much of their information is contradictory.

2. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that to 'truly understand development we have to analyze surface characteristics of a personality.

3. Freud developed his ideas from work with people who suffered from mental disorders.

4. Id is partly conscious.

5. Superego takes into account whether something is right or wrong.

6. According to Freud most of personality exists below our level of awareness.

7. Defense mechanism are consious methods which help to protect from anxiety.

VOCABULARY PRACTICE