Child Benefit

Tax allowances for children were first introduced in 1909, and Family Allowances in 1945. Titmuss, in 1955, made the important argument that tax allowances and benefits were really two aspects of the same thing, a principle which has gradually gained acceptance since then. Child Benefit, combining the two, was passed into law in 1975 (though, because it was controversial, it was not implemented for two years after that).

Child Benefit is flat-rate, not age-related. The case for age relation is that children become more expensive as they grow older. The case against is that poorer families tend to be those with younger children, mainly because the woman in the family is unable to work; and it is simpler not to relate the benefit to age. The basic arguments for Child Benefit are:

- it is paid to the mother, who may have no other income - it is not means-tested and takeup is very high (perhaps 99%) - it is simple to administer - it avoids problems like the poverty trap and stigma - it helps to protect the position of the working poor.

The arguments against are:

- it is not well targeted. Poorer families tend to be smaller and younger, but Child Benefit gives most to larger families. - the redistribution is horizontal - from people without children to people with children - rather than vertical, from rich to poor. Child Benefit may redistribute from a poor single person to a better-off family.

One of the most important objections to Child Benefit has now been removed. For most of its existence, Child Benefit was deducted directly from means-tested benefits, leaving it without value to the poorest families. The system has now been revised so that support for children is now distinct from the rest of the benefit system; it now comes largely from a combination of Child Benefit and Child Tax Credit.

11. Britain and the commonwealth.

The British Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 49 independent states that have been or still are ruled by Britain. Independent states are «full members of the Commonwealth». Among these states are Barbados, Australia, Kenya, Nigeria, India, Singapore, New Zealand, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Cyprus, etc. Dependent territories (colonies + protectorates) are «Commonwealth countries», among them are Bermuda, Falkland Island, British Antarctic Territory, British Virgin Islands and other. The new Commonwealth has grown out of the old British Commonwealth and British Empire. In the days of the old Commonwealth the only self-governing nations were Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The population of Australia, New Zealand and Canada (except for the French-speaking Canadians of Quebec) was almost entirely of people of British descent. When the old British Commonwealth and the British Empire came to an end with the 2nd World War, the new Commonwealth was born. It was born after Britain granted independence to India and Pakistan in 1949. The Commonwealth has no charter, treaty or constitution. The Commonwealth people are drawn from all the world main races, from all continents. The Commonwealth people confess many different religions. Among Commonwealth countries are those in which the dominating religious confessions are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism. The queen is recognized as head of Commonwealth; she is also head of state in 18 countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand. The Commonwealth Secretariat is in London. It is headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the heads of governments of member states. In 1990, for example it was headed by Emeka Anyaoko from Nigeria. The Secretariat promotes consultations, spreads information on matters of Commonwealth interests, organizes meetings and conferences. It coordinates Commonwealth activities related to economic, social and political affairs including youth programs, food, production, technology, science, law and health. Britain plays an active part in the Commonwealth activities, it values the Commonwealth as a means of consulting and cooperating with people of different cultures and perspectives. Britain plays an active part in the work of the Commonwealth Fund for Technical cooperation, established within the Secretariat to provide technical assistance for economic and social development in Commonwealth developing countries, and Britain contributes almost a third of its income. The Fund provides experts to undertake advisory assignments or fill specific posts. It has a special program to help countries develop their exports, production and rural development. This fund also contains a small technical assistance group to give advice in key areas. Britain is a major contributor to the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan, a system of awards for people of high intellect organized in order to make them study in Commonwealth countries. It was agreed in 1984 that the number of awards would be increased to about 1700 of which Britain would provide some 800.

12. Pre-school Education in Britain Today. A nursery school is a school for children between the ages of one and five years, staffed by suitably qualified and other professionals who encourage and supervise educational play rather than simply providing childcare.^[1] It is a pre-school education institution, part of early childhood education.

Nursery in England is also called FS1 which is the first year of foundation before they go into primary or infants.

The curriculum goals of a nursery school are more specific than for childcare, but less strenuous than for primary school. For example, the Scottish Early Years Framework^[2] and the Curriculum for Excellence^[3] define expected outcomes even at this age. In some areas, the provision of nursery school services is on a user pays or limited basis while other governments fund nursery school services.

Each child in England at the first school term after their third birthday, is entitled to five three hour sessions per week - in some counties this has gone up to 15 hours. This entitlement is funded by the government through the local council.^[7] Pre-schools in England follow the Early Learning Goals for education produced by the Department for Children, Schools and Families which carries on into their first year of school at the age of four. This year of school is usually called Reception. The Early Learning Goals cover the main areas of education without being subject driven. These areas include^[8]

• Personal, social and emotional development

• Language, literacy and communication

• Mathematical development

• Knowledge and understanding of the world

• Physical development

• Creative development

Until the mid 1980s, nursery schools only admitted pupils in the final year (three terms) leading up to their admission to primary school, but pupils now attend nursery school for four or five terms. It is also common practise for many children to attend nursery much earlier than this. Many nurseries have the facilities to take on babies, using the 'Early Years Foundation Stage', framework as a guide to give each child the best possible start to becoming a competent learner and skillful communicator.