4. Position of the Soft Palate

This principle of consonant classification provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions. Oral vs. nasal

pit — pin seek — seen thieve — theme sick — sing 60

In these pairs the oral consonants It, k, v/ are opposed to the na­sal /m, n, ту.

The method of minimal pairs helps to identify 24 consonant pho­nemes in the English language on the basis of such an analysis which demands a recourse to the meaning, or to the distinctive function of the phoneme. V. A. Vassilyey ^г writes that those linguists who reject meaning as external to linguistics think that it is possible to "group the sounds of the language into phonemes even without knowing the meaning of words" as D. Jones put it. V. A. Vassilyev states thai "this belief I. . .] is based on two laws of phonemic and allophonic distri­bution (1) that allophones of different phonemes always occur in the same phonetic context I. . .] and (2) that consequently, the allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context and always occur in different positions [. . .]." From these laws "two con­clusions are deduced: (1) if more or less different speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they should be allophones of different phonemes; and (2) if more or less similar speech sounds occur in dif­ferent positions and never occur in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme [...]. This method is known in modern phonology as the purely distributional methodof identifying the phonemes of a language as items of its phonemic system."

Though the practical application of the purely distributional meth­od is theoretically feasible, there are many difficulties in its use.

The principle which determines the choice of the most suitable method for teaching purposes is called the principle of pedagogical expedience in phonemic analysis.

Questions

1. What is the definition of the phoneme from the viewpoint of distinctive oppositions? 2. What is the difference between minimal and sub-minimal pairs? 3. What features of the phoneme are distinc­tively relevant and distinctively irrelevant? 4. What is the nature of voiced — voiceless opposition in English and in Russian? 5. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the existence of labial, lingual, and pharyngal consonant phonemes? 6. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory subdivisions within the group of labial and lingual consonants? 7. What distinctive oppositions illustrate the existence of occlusive (or stops), constructive, occlusiye-constrictive (or affricated) consonants? 8. What distinctive oppositions illustrate classificatory subdivisions within the groups of occlusive and con-strictive consonants? 9. What distinctive oppositions prove the exist­ence of oral and nasal consonant phonemes? 10. What is the differ­ence between the semantic and purely distributional methods of phonological analysis?

Vassilyev V. A. Op. cit,—P. 160.

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Exercises

*1. State what classificatory principles can be illustrated by the groups of pairs given below (consonants opposed initially).

pin — bin, pack — back, pie — bye, tie — die

pen — ten, been — dean

pole — coal, bait — gait

fee — we, fell — well

fee — he

sob — rob, seal — real, sole — role, sip ■— rip, sight — right

pity—city, pay — say, pail — sail, pole — sole, peel — seal

pine — mine, debt — net, kick — Nick

fell — well, those — rose, soul — role, sip — rip, sight — right

fell — well, fee — we

fail — sail, fee — see, foot — soot, fat — sat, fell — sell

2/ Read the pairs of words. Pay attention to the presence of aspiration in /p, " t, k/ vs. its absence in /b, d, g/ rather than to voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis distinction.

It—d/ /k—g/

ten —den come —gum

town — down coast —ghost

ton —done came —game

ties —dies could—good

takes—days cot —got curls —girls

corn —gone cave —gave

/p—b/

pet —bet

pig —big

puts —boots

pass —bus

pack—back

port—bought tear —dear

tart —dart torse —doors

*3. What minimal distinctive feature (or features) makes these oppositions ;phonologically relevant?

(a) cap —cab sent —send

pack —back ton —don caper —labour latter—ladder

leak —league coal —goal decree—degree

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(b) pee —fee tie —sigh do —zoo

supper—suffer attend—ascend raider—razor

leap —leak park —part rude —ruse

(c) till —chill day —jay share —chair

martyr—marcher murder—merger much —marsh

eat —each lard —large furnisher—furniture

4. thigh—shy Ruth —ruche root —rouge save —shave presser—pressure mass—mash ruse —rouge

5. bad —mad dock—knock rigging—ringing arbour—armour eddy—any log -long rub —rum bad —ban

*4. Read these pairs of words. State which of them represent minimal pairs and which sub-minimal pairs.

thick —sick zest —lest daily —daisy

bathed —base they —lay Weiler—weather mouth —mouse marry—measure eel —ease

thigh —shy genre —jar bathe —bail leasure —ledger

Control Tasks

*1. Sort out the oppositions under the following headings: (a) labial vs. fore-lingual, (b) labial vs. mediolingual, (c) labial vs. backlinguai.

pat —cat wield—yield man —nap

supper—succour wail —Yale coming—cunning leap —leak seem —seen

*2. State which of the pairs illustrate (a) forelingual vs. mediolingual and (b) forelingual vs. backlingual oppositions.

tame —carae sinner—singer sung—young

less —yes bitter—bicker bat —back

rudder—rugger clue —cue day —gay

drew —due bad —bag rung—young

*3. Sort out the oppositions under the following headings: (a) occlusive vs. constrictfve, (b) constrictive vs. occlusive-constrictive, (c) noise vs. so-norants, (d) unicentral vs. bicentral, <e) flat narrowing vs. round narrowing.

pine —fine work —jerk vain —lane

fare —chair bee —thee came—lame

boat—moat deed—need fame—same

seek —seen thine—wine sick —sing kick —king

4. State allophonic differences of the /t, k/ phonemes in the initial position due to the influence of the next vowel.

\ W tea, tip, ten, tan, tar, top, tore, tub, took, two, term, tobacco, tale, tie, town, tow, tear, tore

/k/ key, kin, kept, cap, car, cot, core, cut, cork, cool, curb, contain, cake, kite, cow, coy, coal, care

*5. State allophonic differences of:

Л, r, j/ after /p/ in: plan, price, pure;

/r, j, w/ after /t/ in: try, tube, twelve;

/I, r, j, w/ after /k/ in: clean, cream, cue, quite

ENGLISH VOWELS AS UNITS OF THE PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM

Classificatory principles suggested by Soviet phoneticians can be illustrated by distinctive oppositions in the system of the follow­ing English vowel phonemes: /i:, i, e, se, a-, d, o:, u, u:, л, а:, зЛ

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1. Position of the Lips

Rounded vs. unrounded vowels:

don — darn pot — part

In these pairs the unrounded vowel phoneme hi is opposed to the rounded hi phoneme.

2. Position of the Tongue

(1) Horizontal movement of the tongue (a) front vs. central

cab—curb bed—bird

%honeme^r (b) back vs. central

pull—perl cart—curt call—curl

(2) Vertical movement of 'the tongue

(a) close (Ugh) vs. mid-open (mid)

bid—bird put—port week—work

Jomvo^i%t ^{dose vowels llt u}'^{lu/ are opposed t0 the}

(b) open (low) vs. mid-open (mid)

lack—lurk bard—bird call—curl

Xenvowei/₃:/

to the h₀lte?i ^Wil^{hin e}f^{ch grou}P ^{which we s}tog^{le out} according subgroups ^{3nd Vertical move}^nts of the tongue there are

/i" ^Ре^Г0^/1Т!,⁸,п^аГ%^3иЬ(!^{1у1аес1ШЬ1и][1}У^!го^ and front-retracted: