21. Quotations and Allusions.

Q. is a repetition of a phrase of sentence from some text used in analytics to illustrate, prove or develop the subject. The text from which the Q. is taken is called source text and into which it's inserted called target.

Q. are usually marked of texts graphically by inverted commas, italics, dashes. Q-s are characteristics of scientific texts, where they are reproduced in an unchanged form with the reference to the authors. They also appear in media texts where they are not always marked graphically and can be abridged.

In fiction Q. function in a more specific way the authors quoted is not mentioned & there can be no quotation marks, as a result the Q. becomes of the target place.

Eg. The conversation which eventually followed on this topic was of such staff as dreams are made of.

The function of Q. in fiction is to arouse definite association connected with the source text.

Allusion is a reference to a source book which is made in a target text. In comparison with q-ns it’s less evident and has a more implicit nature.

The Q. is usually represented by words while an allusion may be just 1 word which refers the reader to a dif.text. The frequently alluded texts are : Bible, Shakespeare, mythology.

The A. establishes interconnection between 2 texts: target & source text.

As a result the target text becomes more complicated because it takes the reader to 2 situations or 2 contexts of target and source texts. For the reader to recognize the allusion it's necessary to have a certain textual competition.

E.g. He wrote them both the most imbecile and provocative letters Elizabeth to Fanny, Fanny to Elizabeth. How much he cared. He was like Shelly, Elizabeth was like Harry, Fanny was like Emilia Viviani.

(22) INVERSION. An Eng. language has a fixed direct word-order: Subject – Predicative – Object.

Inversion is a violation of a traditional word-order which does not change the meaning, but adds logical stress and emotional coloring.

There exist the following patterns:

1) predicative with/without the link-verb is placed before the subject. E.g. Wonderful was the touch of her shoulders.

2) the adverbial modifier & the predicative expressed by the verb are placed before the subject. E.g. In the door-way stood the maid.

3) the object is placed at the head of the sentence or before the sentence. E.g. The last words she said with the scorn.

4) the attribute stands after the word it modifies. E.g. His fingers stained & warm.

As a rule, Inversion place emphasis on that part of the sentence which is placed at the beginning. For the Eng. language it’s typical to invert a phrasal verb which brings dynamism to the sentence. E.g. In another moment down went Alice.

(23) DETACHMENT(обособление) – a separation of the secondary part of the sentence with the aim of emphasizing it. The separation leads to a violation of customary syntactical connections between words. As a result, the detached word or phrase becomes isolated from the main part of the sentence & from the word it syntactically belongs to. It is independent & emphasized.

In a way, Detachment is like Inversion. They both have the same function – to make some words more prominent than they might be in their usual places. But contrary to Inversion, Detachment breaks customary connections between the members of the sentence. Detachments are marked with commas, dashes & brackets.

The most typical detachment constructions are those, in which an attribute or adverbial modifier is syntactically isolated from the word it refers to. E.g. Elegant, weary, infinitely, fragile, Mrs.Glamba laid back in her armchair.

(24) PARENTHESIS is a variety of Detachment. Parenthetic sentences are grammatically independent of the sentence into which they are inserted. Function is to specify, comment or emphasize smth that is mentioned in the main sentence. E.g. They hadn’t seen – no one could see- her distress, not even her grandfather.

Parenthetic sentences are marked with commas, dashes, brackets.

(25) ELLIPSIS is a deliberate omission of some stylistic purposes. It’s typical of oral colloquial speech & doesn’t perform any stylistic function there.

El.words can be easily understood from the context & also stands for intonation, gestures and mimics of the speaker. In a written text El.sentences become more informative, because the remaining words can express their own meaning & also the meaning of absent words.

Ellipsis occurs dialogues as a natural character of oral conversation. Besides, it’s often used in monologs to represent the emot.state of the person. E.g.:

• Josey speaking.

• Michael.

• Ah, the lost brightgroom.

• Lunch?

• Why not?

• White o’clock?

• We’ll do.

• The old place.

• Of course.

(26) BREAK-IN-THE-NARRATIVE

It’s a sudden stroke of speech as a speaker is unable or unwilling to express what was in his mind.

Such breaks are typical of oral col.speech & they come natural & the missing inf-n can be gathered from gestures, intonation & context. In such situations b-i-n doesn’t perform any stylistic function. This feature of oral speech is imitated in books where it occurs in dialogues & shows us the natural tone of a conversation. Besides, it also conveys the emot.state of the char-r who breaks the speech because of embarrassment, doubt, astonishment, …

Breaks are also typical of ino-monologs where they reflect the process of reasoning with all their positives & irregularities. Graphically b-i-n is marked by dashes or series of dots.

E.g.: - Where are you going?

- It’s just …

- Don’t tell me, I know.

- You have to understand. I …

- Don’t try to explain. I’ll see you later.

(27) PARALLELISM – similarity of synt-l structures of phrases, clauses or sent-s, which stand close to one another. P.is observed in macro-structures such as a paragraph. It may be of 2 types: complete & partial.

Complete P.is identity of synt-l structures. It’s typical of poetry, where such P.is for rhythm.

E.g. The warm sun is failing

The bleak wind is waving

The bare boughs are sighing

The pale flower is dying.

Partial P.is structural similarity of some parts of successive units. E.g. I wanted to explain, I wanted to come down from the witness box & tell them that I’d loved Joey, that I’d worshiped Joey, that I’d do anything literally to make him come alive again.

P.always contributes to a rhythmical arrangement of a statement. Besides, in P.there is always some implied meaning of some similarity or relatedness of actions which is brought out by the similarity of syntactical structures. E.g. He had planted our sees, ravaged our costs, burned our tones.

CHIASMUS – a variation of Parallelism, the so-called reserved P.

Chiasmus - 2 similarly built sentences have a peculiar structure. The word-order of the first sentence is inverted in the second. E.g. *I observed Thompson, Thompson observed me. *Pleasure is a sin & sometimes sin is a pleasure.

Ch.emphasizes the second part of the utterance due to a sudden pause before it, which is caused by an unexpected change of word-order. As a result, the reader pays more attention to the meaning of the words. It mainly functions in ironic sense. Lots of paradoxes & epigrams based on it. E.g. When we are happy we are always good, but when we are good we are not always happy.

(28) REPETITION may occur in dialogues to reflect the state of a person overcome by strong emotions. It functions as an expressive mean. Besides, R-n may function as a special figure of speech in order to draw the reader’s attention to some important piece of inf-n & lay logical emphasis on it.

We may single out the following patterns of R-n:

1) Anaphora – the R-n of the same element at the beginning of clauses or sentences. (Uncle Amos never has a sight, uncle Amos never has a pocket book, at least, uncle Amos never went even as far as Boston.)

2) Epiphora – the R-n of the same element at the end of clauses & sentences. (I wake up early & I’m alone, and I walk round Worley & I’m alone, and I talk with people & I’m alone.)

3) Catch R-n - the R-n of the final word of the 1^st sentence at the beginning of the 2^nd. (Poirot was shaken, shaken & embittered.)

4) Framing – the R-n of the initial element at the end of a sentence. (Our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury.)

5) Extended R-n – a R-n of a word with additional components which specify & modify it. (I don’t think he heard. Pain, even slight pain, tends to isolate. Pain such as he had to suffer cuts the last links with society.)

6) Synonymical R-n – the expression of some idea with the help of various synonyms which differ in their connotations. (The poetry of Earth is never dead. The poetry of Earth is ceasing never.)

7) Morphological R-n – the R-n of the same morpheme in a series of words. (It is the poison that makes us heartless, & hopeless, & lifeless.)

(29) Polysyndenton(многосоюзие) – an insistent R-n of a connective between words, phrases, clauses in an utterance. (The tent is soaked & heavy, and it flops about, and tumbles down on you, and cleans round your hand, and makes you mad.) In most cases Poly-n is used together with Parallelism & in most cases it creates a certain rhythm in a text. It makes narration more dynamic.

Asyndeton – a deliberate omission of connectives.

In most cases it makes each phrase or clause sound more independent, significant & weighty, and slows down the tempo of the narration. (The night sprang to flickering daylight with a gun-flashes, the Earth trembled with a shock, the air roared & screamed with shells.)

(30) Enumeration – listing things, phenomena & actions one by one in chain.

The words enumerated belong to the same part of speech but to different semantic classes. The grouping of words denoting absolutely different notions in one sentence leads to the clash of different meanings, such sentence is not easy to understand at first reading & the reader has to reread it in order to get its meaning & to understand possible connections with the enumerated ideas. (When I think of my condition at the age of fifty-five when I bought the ticket, all is grief. The facts begin to crowd me and soon I get a pressure in the chest. A disorderly rush begins -- my parents, my wives, my girls, my children, my farm, my animals, my habits, my money, my music lessons, my drunkenness, my prejudices, my brutality, my teeth, my face, my soul!)

(31) SUSPENCE(ретардация) is a deliberate delay in the completion of the expressed thought. What has been delayed in the leading part of the utterance, and the reader/listener awaits it with an ever increasing tension. S. is achieved by the use of phrases, clauses expressing condition, supposition, time, place & the like, all of which hold back the conclusion of the utterance. S. arouse a state of uncertainty mixed with anxiety, expectation as to the possible conclusion of the utterance. It produces a psychological effect. S. can be created in big structures such as 1 or more paragraphs. (Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M. was obliging enough to read and explain to me, for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw.)

(32) GRADATION – a syntactical structure in which every successive unit is emotionally stronger & more significant in meaning than the previous one. (Her parlour-maid was ugly on purpose, malignantly, criminally ugly.)

3 types of G-n: logical, emotional & quantitative.

1) In LG every new concept is logically more important than the previous one.

2) EG is created by a series of synonyms with emotive meanings & expressive connotation & the gradually increase the emotional tension of the utterance.

3) QG implies a rise in its size, volume & number of each new concept.

As a rule, G is achieved with the help of:

-parallel constructions,

-various types of repetitions

-contextual synonyms.

The function of G-n is to increase the emotional tension(напряжение) of the narration.

(33) ANTICLIMAX – a device contrary to gradation.

2 types:

1) emotional & logical importance go down gradually

2) the expressiveness first start growing, then the tension is unexpectedly broken & brought dawn. Such a sudden fall from the most significant point to its reverse usually produces a humorous or ironic effect. (I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor husband's death. I never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger).

A-x usually produces an effect of defeated expectancy.

(34) ANTITHESIS is a figure of speech which consists of several clauses, sentences in which one thing or idea is contrasted to its opposite. A-s is usually created with the help of parallel constructions & contextual antonym. Parallelism makes the opposed ideas more conspicuous.(I have walked into that reading room a happy healthy man, I crawled out a decrepit wreck.)

The function of A-s is to compare things, actions or qualities by contrasting them to each other emphasizing their differences. (Crabbed age and youth cannot live together: Youth is full of pleasure, age is full of care; Youth like summer morn, age like winter weather; Youth like summer brave, age like winter bare.)

Besides, A-s may characterize the complex single phenomena which has a complicated inner structure: *ambivalent desires, *clash of feelings & ideas inside one person. (It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us.)

(35) RHETORICAL QUESTION is one of the types of transposition of syntactical units. Transposition can be understood as changing functions of syntactical units, that is a positive sentence is used in the function of the question has the meaning of a statement. RQ is a statement in the form of a question.

The functions of a RQ may be varied. It may serve as an inducement(побуждение). RQ may also express a positive or a negative statement. (Did I say a word about money? Isn’t that too bad?)

RQ is a characteristic of a publicistic style where they are widely used in the newspaper lines. Besides, very often the speech begins with a series of RQ which serve to attract the audience’s attention & make them interested. (Our brethren are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have?)

In fiction RQ occur in dialogues where they represent the process of reasoning of the character.

(36) FREE INDIRECT DISCOURCE (FID) – a way of rendering character’s speech. Traditionally in fiction 2 methods of representing speech are direct & indirect.

Direct speech is the exact reproduction of what the person says.

Indirect speech is retelling what a person says & it’s not as exact as direct speech. There are some grammatical changes & substitutions …

Besides speech representation, it’s possible to speak about thought representation.

2 methods: direct thought & indirect thought.

Besides these traditional methods there is the one which combines features of direct & indirect speech and thought representation.

Features of direct speech: *syntactical independence of sentences. Sentences & their structure is not changed. They remain as they usually are in their direct form. *The use of questions, exclamations, emotional words, contrasted form of modal verbs; elliptical sentences, breaks-in-the-narrations. *The word-order is not changed.

Features of indirect speech: *the pronouns are shifted into the 1^st person singular, *the rule of sequence of tenses is observed.

FID had 2 subtypes:

1) Free Indirect Speech

2) Free Indirect Thought.

FIS is not marked in any way. Sometimes, a whole dialogue may be interwoven with the narration.

FIT renders the character’s thoughts. This type is more frequently used by writers than the 1^st type. It’s a combination of the author’s narration with the character’s thinking, the discloses of inner working of a human mind. It enables writer to convey in a realistic way the psychological state of its character’s feelings & emotions. Besides, FIT produces a great effect on a reader, who can view the events through character’s perception.

37. Alliteration. It’s the repetition of the same stressed cons-те at the beginning of stream of words or syllables. A. has a symbolic nature. And repetitions of certain cons-ts are supposed to produce certain images.

F.e., alliteration of sonorants is associated with ideas of love, sweetness, arousing pleasant feelings. They make a sentence or a poetic line musical & melodious. A. of plosives make an utterance heavy, abrupt & arouse unpleasant & negative feelings. A. can also be employed in emotive prose which increases its expressiveness. A. can be often found in newspaper headlines & book titles (“Pride&Prejudice”, “Sense&Sensibility”).

Assonance. It’s the repetition of the same stressed vowel in a stream of words. As. also has a symbolic nature, thus repetition of front vowel such as e, ei, i:, i, ai, әe are associated with smth. light, pleasant & repetition of back vowels (ɒ, :ɔ, ɑ:, u) are associated with smth. dark, unpleasant.

38. Sound symbolism. It’s a use of words who’s sounds imitate various sounds produced in nature by natural phenomena, birds, animals, people & machine. It may be of 2 types: direct & indirect. Direct s/s is created by words which directly imitate natural sounds by their sound form. F.e., buzz, hiss, bang, crash, clap. Indirect s/s is created by several words which occur within one sen-ce. They’re repeated sounds or sound classes are suggestive of the m-g of the sen-ce. They either imitate the sounds & noises that the sen-ce tells about or emphasizes the created idea or image. S/s resembles alliteration, but the difference b/n them is that the symbolic nature of alliteration must be interpreted & deciphered while s/s usually names the described notion directly.

39. Rhythm. R. is created by regular alternation of str. and unstr. syllables in equal poetic lines which form a verse. Verse is the form of literary composition in which rhythms are rendered systematic by means of metre and metre is determined by the relationship b/n accented & unaccented syllables. The main unit which is used for measure metre is called a foot. The foot is a unit which consists of one stressed syllable & one or more unstr. syllables. They’re 5 basic feet: 1) iambus _ ^ | _^; 2) trochee ^ _ | ^ _; 3) dactyl ^ _ _ | ^ _ _; 4) amphibrach _ ^ _ | _ ^ _; 5) anapest _ _ ^ | _ _ ^. The most widely used feet in eng. are anapest & iambus.

40. Rhyme. It’s a repetition of identical or similar final sounds of words. In poetry rhyme serves to bind lines together into larger units of composition. R. can be classified: I. acc. to the similarity of final sounds: a) full rhyme b) incomplete/ imperfect rhyme. In full rhyme the vowels & following cons-ts are identical in stressed syllables. F.e. arms, harms; wonder, thunder. Imperfect rhyme can be subdivided into vowel rhyme, consonant rhyme & eye rhyme. In vowel rhyme vowels are identical, cons-ts are not (flesh-fresh-fles). In cons-t rhyme cons-ts are identical, vowels not (turn-torn-tone). In eye rhyme the spelling is identical, the pronunciation is different (love-prove, brood-flood). II. acc. to the structure: a) masculine b) feminine. In masc. rhymes the final str. syll-s of words rhyme together (surmount-discount). In femin. rhyme the final 2 syll-s rhyme together & the first one is stressed (delightful-frightful).

Rhymes can be arranged acc. to the following patterns in a stanza. It’s the largest recurring unit in a verse which expresses a complete thought. It’s characterized by equal number of lines, a certain type of metre & a certain rhyme pattern. Types of stanza: 1) couplet rh. aabb; 2) cross rh. abab; 3) ring rh. abba; 4) inner rh. which occurs in longer lines of verse which are broken in two and the final words of the two parts rhyme together within a line.

41) Language variation. The notion of style is related to how we use the language under specific circumstances. Use of English involves not only our knowledge of the linguistic structure of the language. It also precipices our awareness of numerous situations in which English can be used as means of communication. There are many variants of English, where their own distinctive features as there are situations of communication. The term style refers to peculiar function that the language performs in a certain type of communicative situations. L.V. depends on various factors: geographical, social, occupational, situational.

David Crystal’s classification of L.V.:

-) regional answers to the question- where are you from in English speaking world. Speakers of different E.speaking countries use different variants of English.

-) social answers the question- what society do you belong. May be several answers because people make up different social identities in the social structure. The same person may be- a parent, wife, daughter, a member of parliament… our language reveals our permanent and temporary roles in social life.

-) occupational is associated with the person’s occupation, each professional group has their own glossary of technical terms and administrative vocabulary.

-) individual is the result of the speaker’s personal differences and physical appearance, personality, experience, interests, education. Each individual has its own dialect.

Functional styles are distinctive features of vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and syntax which are related and determined by a certain communicative situation. There are: scientific, official, publicistic, colloquial styles.

42) Scientific prose style. The aim is to prove, hypothesis and describe new phenomena scientific laws and various inventions.

• From the lexical point of view scientific texts are characterized by obligatory used of terms specific to a certain brunch.

• All the other words of general vocabulary are used in their direct logical meaning to avoid any ambiguity. The words are usually bookish, less neutral. There are no colloquial words, no emotional, expressive words.

• The selected use of pronounce 1^st person plural (we) is preferred to 1^st person singular (I), the 2d person is not used.

• In syntax S.is gathered by logical reason. That’s why it’s characterized by logical sequence of sentence which are complex simple sentences occur very rarely and in order to connect the idea a great variety of connective is used: so, firstly, finally, therefore, consequently.

• Passive constructions are used: it must be assumed, it should be pointed out.

• The sentences are reproduced exactly marked with inverted commas; references, footnotes

Popular scientific style: these texts not only for professions, but for large audience where may be little acquainted with the subject. The author of such a text strives to be understood by many people and because of that he avoids special terms. If he does use them he usually explains or describes them. The structure is singular, the exposition is less objective, is more vivid and attractive. The logical sequence is not always observed.

43) Official style: style of legal documents, style of business documents, style of diplomacy, style of military documents.

Main function is communicative to express certain relations between governments, companies, the state and their citizens and so on. Official doc-s may have various forms such as official statements, pacts, charters, business correspondence, military and so on.

Features:

1)all the words are used in their direct, logical meaning, they are bookish words, terms, clichés, set expressions which are permanent: the above mentioned, in accordance with.

2)some archaic forms can be found: hereby, herewith

3)foreign words (Latin & French) are used: status quo, persona non grata, force majeure

4)there is no evaluative and emotional vocabulary, non colloquial words.

5)abbreviations, shortenings, conventional synonyms are used: ltd, Gvt, MP, HMS

6)in syntax documents consist of long complex sentences with several types of coordination.

7)it’s characterized by a great number of passive constructions, participles, infinitival, gerundial constructions, a lot of numerous connectives.

8)detached constructions and parenthesis are used.

9)all documents have a special compositional design. The text is clearly subdivided into separate units of information which are logically arranged in the order of priority. The tone of narrator is objective, concrete, unemotional and impersonal.

10)italics, bold type, capital letter are widely employed.

(44)Publicistic style exists in 2 forms:-oral;-written

Essays and articles published in newspapers and magazines belong to the written form. And speeches, radio and TV commentaries, radio and TV talk shows belong to its oral form. The function of this style is to inform readers and listeners, to influence the public opinion, to convince the audience of smth and to express the point of view in an article or speech.

Public speeches

1. Being an oral form of publicistic style it contains some peculiarities of oral speeches which are directed to the audience *Ladies and gentlemen *Honorable members

2. The use of contracted forms *I’m, you’re, don’t

3. Use of colloquial words, use of the 1^st and 2^nd personal pronouns. Importance of standard pronunciation

4. The use of intonation to express shades of meaning, implication, different emotions. Also gestures and mimics play a great role.

In its leading features public speeches belong to the written variety of the language, thus they have the form of the monologue. Lexically there are lots of bookish words and some terms, very often the use of figurative language. In order to appeal to the emotions of the listeners, speakers resort to phraseological units, metaphors, similes, allusions, irony. But all stylistic devices used in speech are dead, so that the listeners won’t have any difficulties in understanding them and can easily get at the idea. Compositionally the text is logically constructed; the message is expressed clearly with argumentative power.

Syntactical constructions are not very much complicated and there are a lot of connectives, which link the idea of the speaker. Among syntactical stylistic devices most frequent one are: repetitions and rhetorical questions.

Written style

Newspaper articles, media articles.

A newspaper serves to inform and to convince the reader. It’s meant for different kinds of audience, people who differ in their background, education and culture. A newspaper is often read in places where it’s hard to concentrate: in the undergrounds or at lunch, during a break. The process of reading is often broken off. All these factors impose certain rules on creating a newspaper text. A media text should be understandable to everyone. It’s supposed to arouse the reader’s interest at once and keep it throughout the article and the main information should be imparted in a short concise and expressive way. A media article has the structure of an inverted pyramid and the information is presented according to the top-down relevant principles. The most important information is imparted in the headline and the 1^st sentence.

(45) General features of media articles (MA)

1) MA abound in proper names (people, geographical places, numerals)

2) Newspaper articles contain a great number of bookish words, abstract words, and economic and political terms.

3) Newspaper clichés are widely used. They are stable, easily recognizable and understandable. *to step down

*to come to force

4) Lots of abbreviations and clipped forms are used to contribute conciseness

5) Abbreviations may stand for geographical places and well-known public figures.

6) Abbreviation and clipping must be well-known to the reader or explained in the text

7) A newspaper is very sensitive to everything new in the life of society therefore lots of neologisms have come into existence in mass media *long-haired

8) Some newspaper articles are written in a very expressive way. They are rich in various stylistic devices: epithets, irony, similes, metaphors, punning, and allusions. But they are all dead.

9) In syntax some news items may be very complicated. It usually refers to the news article.

The content may be expressed in 1 or 2 sentences, which are very long with a number of infinitive, participial, gerundial and nominative constructions.

10) The rules of sequences of tenses is not observe.

11) MAs contain plenty of quotations of direct speech, which may be presented without inverted commas. The content of quotations may be transformed for some purposes and supplied with ironic commas of a journalist.

(46) Newspaper headlines

The aim of headlines is informational. That is to express the content of an article in a short form and besides the other function is expressive, because the aim is to attract the reader’s attention. And these 2 functions have grammatical and syntactical features.

1. Articles are often omitted.*Long trip in strange car for 2 Frenchmen

2. Omission of the verb to be *Lost Botticelli unveiled

3. Present simple is used to refer to smth that has happened, is happening or happens regularly.*Somali gunman attacks British tourists in Kenya

4. To refer to the future the infinitive is used *Britain to spend more a cancer research

5. The possessive case is preferred to the off phrase *Muslim women struggle to wear what they like

6. Attributive use of nouns. 3,4,5 nouns may be put together into a sort of block with all the nouns except the last functioning as attribute *Bread Price Rise Shock

7. As far as the vocabulary is concerned here certain words keeps repeated in headlines. These recurring words are often short, one syllable words colored by expressive and evaluative shades of meaning *pledge-promise

8. Info is combined with appraisal. There are various stylistically colored words, pins, transformed idioms. Use of abbreviations and initials.

Syntactically the most widely used structure is an elliptical sentence, which is laconic and concise on the one hand and expressive on the other hand. Other syntactical structures employed are statements, nominative sentences, questions, quotations and direct speech.

Graphically punctuation marks are widely used, especially a dash.