На пути в научную библиотеку

Unit 7. Variety of Species

Part 1

Exercise 1. Put the sentences into the proper order. Read the whole paragraph.

a.The changes resulted in the great diversity of life we see today.

b.Ancient organisms fi rst arose around 3.5 billion years ago, roughly a billion years after the Earth was formed.

c.Over time, the Earth underwent geologic and atmospheric changes, which caused some animals to die out, others to thrive, and others to adapt to the changed environment.

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Read the whole paragraph.

include cord most other from form made arose earliest others

Exactly when and how the animal kingdom evolved (1)… the earliest simple life forms to the diversity we see today are questions that continue to challenge scientists. What is clear is that at some point hundreds of millions of years after the earliest animals evolved, a group of animals (2)… that had the beginnings of an internal skeleton and a rudimentary backbone, a semifl exible structure (3)… of cartilage called a notochord. These animals were called the chordates. In addition to their rudimentary backbones, the chordates also had a crude (4)… of nervous tissue running along their backs—the forerunner of our spinal cords. Within this group arose a subgroup of animals with an internal skeleton and spine made of bone. This latter group included the (5)… vertebrates. Today, vertebrates are among the most familiar animals. They (6)… the mammals, reptiles, birds, fi sh, and amphibians. The (7)… major branch of the animal kingdom consists of the invertebrates—animals without backbones. They include insects, sponges, corals, jellyfi sh, clams, lobsters, and starfi sh.

Exercise 3. Put the words and phrases of the given sentences into the proper order. Read the whole paragraph.

1.only/about 5 percent/The vertebrates/of all animal species/make up.

2.the remaining 95 percent/make up/Invertebrates.

3.There/4,500 species/some/are/of mammals.

4.represents/the total number/though/have been described/More than/scientists/that/1 million insect species/far less/than.

5.this/insects/within the animal kingdom/Still/makes/the largest group.

Exercise 4. Look through the paragraphs above and give the title to the whole text.

Exercise 5. Match the words with their definitions.

11.distinction

12.similar

(adopted from «animal. Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. )

Part 2

How classifi cation shows relationships

Classification shows relationships between animals in an increasingly specific order, from remotely related members of the same phylum to closely related species within a genus. House cats (Felis catus) and bobcats (Felis rufus) belong to the same genus (Felis) and family (Felidae) but to different species.

Dogs and cats do not appear to be related. Both, however, have backbones and are meat-eating mammals. Hence they belong to phylum Chordata (having a spinal cord), class Mammalia (mammals), and order Carnivora (fl esh eaters); because of differences between them, however, they belong to separate families (dog, Canidae; cat, Felidae).

Whales and sharks both appear to be kinds of fi sh. Both are strong, streamlined swimmers of the sea. However, the whale is a mammal. It has lungs and is warm-blooded, gives birth to live young, and nurses its offspring with milk. Whales therefore belong to the class Mammalia. The shark, on the other hand, is a primitive kind of fi sh with a skeleton of cartilage instead of bone. Sharks, whales, and true fi shes all have a backbone. Thus, they are placed in the same phylum (Chordata) and subphylum (Vertebrata). Sharks and fi shes, however, are also in different classes, the sharks being in the Chondrichthyes and the true fi shes in the Osteichthyes.

Classifi cation also suggests which kinds of animals may have descended from other types. All multicelled animals, for example, are supposed to be de-

scendants of one-celled animals. This does not mean descent from one living kind of animal to another, however. All living animals are believed to have descended from common ancestors that were less specialized than they. These relationships may be shown on a treelike diagram called a phylogenetic tree. The word phylogenetic comes from two Greek words meaning «race history.»

(adopted from «animal.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. )

Exercise 1. Look through the text and define which of the following key words are mentioned in the text. Put them in the order they appear in the text.

Exercise 2. What do the key words from Exercise 1 refer to?

Exercise 3. Are the following statements true or false?

1.Classifi cation helps to fi nd conspecifi cs and descendants.

2.All backbones belong to the same class.

3.All backbones are carnivores.

4.Whales lack respiration system.

5.All fi shes are placed in the same class.

6.All mammals have different ancestors.

7.Phylogenetic tree shows the structure of digestive system.

Exercise 4. Answer the following questions:

1.What does classifi cation show?

2.How are cats and dogs related?

3.What is the difference between whales and sharks?

4.What skeleton do sharks have?

5.What is the relation between uni and multicelled organisms?

6.What does the term phylogenetic mean?

7.What language is used in classifi cation?

Exercise 5. Match the words with their definitions.

11.tree

12.race

Part 3

Animal taxonomy and systematics

They involve the evolutionary history of a group of organisms and its position in relationship to other animals. A species is a group of organisms that interbreed naturally among themselves. Systematics is the science of classifying species in terms of their natural evolutionary origins and relationships. Taxonomy is the process of assigning organisms scientifi c names that are based on these relationships.

To name an animal, taxonomists use a system of nomenclature based on ascending levels of classifi cation. These basic levels are species, genus, family, order, class, and phylum. Each species of animal is given a scientifi c name, called a binomial. The binomial consists of a genus name and a species name and refers to all members of a particular species.

Genera (plural of genus) that are closely related are placed in the same family, and families that have a similar evolutionary history are placed in the same order. All of the animals that are in related orders are grouped into classes, and similar classes are placed in the same phylum. All of the phyla (plural of phylum) of animals are in the animal kingdom.

Modern systematics involves the use of numerous techniques, ranging from the comparison of basic anatomical differences and similarities among animals to the use of biochemical genetics. The proper classifi cation of animals is a major concern in zoology because each species or higher taxonomic group has characteristics that distinguish it from all others. Knowledge of these dis-

tinctions is sometimes critical to understanding certain zoological phenomena, such as whether animals from different geographic regions are similar because of a close ancestral relationship or because of independent adaptation to a similar environment.

(adopted from «zoology.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. )

Exercise 1. Look through the text and define which of the following key words are mentioned in the text. Put them in the order they appear in the text.

Exercise 2. What do the key words from Exercise 1 refer to?

Exercise 3. Are the following statements true or false?

1.It assigns scientifi c names.

2.There are six basic levels.

3.Systematics classifi es all species.

4.Animals of the same family are closely related.

5.They are able to interbreed and reproduce.

6.Anatomical and biochemical differences are involved in the process of systematics.

7.Animals from different geographic regions are similar.

Exercise 4. Answer the following questions:

1.What do taxonomy and systematics show?

2.What system is used in taxonomy?

3.What is binomial?

4.Which animals are placed in the same order?

5.What is genus?

6.Which organisms interbreed?

7.Why is knowledge of differences and similarities critical?

Exercise 5. Match the words with their definitions.

1. assign a. any of a kingdom of living things composed of many cells typically differing from plants in capacity for active movement, in rapid response to stimulation, in being unable to carry on photosynthesis, and in lack of cellulose cell walls

b. a state of interest and uncertainty

c. a written record of important events and their causes

d. of or relating to the separate parts of a whole

11.certain

12.close

2. READING ROOM FOR STUDENTS OF GEOGRAPHY

Unit 1. Geography

Part 1

Exercise 1. Put the words and phrases of the given sentences into the proper order. Read the whole paragraph.

The arrangement of things / on maps / over the Earth / and /between two or more areas / with clarity and simplicitys / can be presented / the interactions.

Although maps / essential tool / they become / are used / the one constantly/ in many other studies / in geography.

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Read the whole paragraph.

the analytical map seismograph the reference map mathematical physical the analytical map are used mostly

Three kinds of maps are important. They are (1) …, which may be used like an encyclopedia as a source of information; (2) …, which shows the distribution of specifi c phenomena or the spatial correlation of two or more phenomena on the Earth’s surface; and (3) …, which suggests ideas that can be tested by (4) … and statistical techniques. The third type of map is used (5)… by professional geographers in their research. The reference and illustrative maps (6)… in everyday affairs.

Exercise 3. Put the sentences into the proper order. Read the whole paragraph.

a.A road map is a good example of a reference map.

b.Trade maps are of this kind.

c.Each of these abilities is described in the article Maps and Globes.

d.Drivers refer to such maps to fi nd out how to get from one place to another.

e.The weather map reproduced in daily newspapers is a good example of an illustrative map.

f.These are the ability to locate places, to ascertain directions, to measure distances, and to interpret the mapmaker’s symbols.

g.It shows how temperatures, precipitation, winds, and pressure are related in space.

h.Many other reference maps are published by commercial fi rms.

i.Illustrative maps also may show connections among various parts of the Earth.

j.To make and to read maps involve several abilities.

Exercise 4. Look through the paragraphs above and give the title to the whole text.

Exercise 5. Match the word with its definition.

11.phenomena

12.tool

(adopted from «geography.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.)

Part 2

Different kinds of geography

The distribution of things on the face of the Earth can be investigated and analyzed in either of two ways. One approach is called topical geography, or sometimes systematic geography. The other approach is called regional geography.

Topical geography may be focused on physical or human phenomena. Analysis of the distribution of landforms, climates, water, soils, minerals, and similar factors is called physical geography. Certain aspects of this branch, in turn, are sometimes studied separately.

Topical geography may also be centered on the distribution of some human phenomenon. The analysis of the distribution of man’s productive occupations, such as farming, mining, and manufacturing, is generally known as economic geography. In this fi eld there are such specialties as the geography of agriculture, geography of manufacturing, transportation geography, and commercial geography.

Political geography emphasizes the pattern of the Earth’s political sovereignties. Social geography includes the study of the dispersion of population and other factors, such as the distribution of the various religions.

A specialized fi eld of topical geography, known as urban geography, is devoted to analyzing the distribution of cities and of things within cities.

In regional geography analysis is concentrated on associations which give character to a particular area. The area may be continental in size, or it may be subdivided into units such as countries, states, and counties. Subdivisions of the world that are made on the basis of similarities of human life provide culture regions.

(adopted from «geography.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.)

Exercise 1. Look through the text and copy out branches of science. Exercise 2. In what context are and branches of science mentioned? Exercise 3. Are the following statements true or false?

1.The distribution of things on the face of the Earth can be investigated and analyzed in either of four ways.

2.Topical geography may be focused on physical or human phenomena.

3.Analysis of the distribution of landforms, climates, water, soils, minerals, and similar factors is called geology.

4.The analysis of the distribution of man’s productive occupations, such as farming, mining, and manufacturing, is generally known as physical geography.

6.Political geography emphasizes the pattern of the Earth’s political sovereignties.

6.Social geography includes the study of the dispersion of population and other factors, such as the distribution of the various religions.

7.Urban geography is devoted to analyzing the distribution of cities and of things within cities.

Exercise 4. Answer the following questions:

1.How can the distribution of things on the face of the Earth be investigated and analyzed?

2.What may topical geography be focused and centered on?

3.What is physical geography?

4.How is the analysis of the distribution of man’s productive occupations known?

5.What is political geography?

6.What does social geography include?

7.What is urban geography?

Exercise 5. Match the word with its definition.

11.manufacturing

12.occupation

Part 3

History

The earliest geographers were actually surveyors and mapmakers, but in ancient Greece, where geography as a discipline really began to emerge,

they were natural philosophers with a broad range of knowledge and talents. The best known of the ancient scholars was Strabo (64BC?-AD 23?), a Greek historian and geographer. His ‘Geography’ is the only existing work covering the peoples and countries known to the Greeks and Romans.

During the Age of Discovery, beginning in the 15th century, geography experienced a new birth after centuries of neglect. Geographers provided the impetus for many expeditions and vastly increased the world’s knowledge about itself. By the 18th century, however, governments and learned societies had taken over the sponsorship of exploration and had replaced geographers with professional surveyors and mapmakers—as in the earliest times.

At about the same time, two Germans—Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter—were the fi rst to write and teach as academic geographers. Since their day most geographers have been scholars, scientists, and teachers. Geography, through the efforts of such organizations as the Royal Geographical and American Geographical societies, has become fi rmly established as an academic discipline. The knowledge, techniques, and skills of trained geographers have also made their services valuable to many outside the academic world. Many governmental and business agencies employ geographers as planners, researchers, consultants, and scientists.

In the latter part of the 20th century, geography has been characterized by several trends. One is specialization. Geography has always combined the work of many disciplines, but today’s geographer is more likely to be an expert in only one aspect than in the subject as a whole. Thus there are agricultural geographers, climatologists, arid zone specialists, and so on.

(adopted from «geography.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.)

Exercise 1. Look through the text and copy out proper names. Exercise 2. In what context are the proper names mentioned? Exercise 3. Are the following statements true or false?

1.The best known of the ancient scholars was Strabo, a Greek historian and geographer.

2.During the Age of Discovery, beginning in the 17th century, geography experienced a new birth after centuries of neglect.

3.Geography, through the efforts of such organizations as the Royal Geographical and American Geographical societies, has become fi rmly established as a political discipline.

4.The knowledge, techniques, and skills of trained geographers have also made their services valuable to many outside the academic world

5.Many governmental and business agencies employ geographers as planners, researchers, consultants, and scientists.

6.In the latter part of the 20th century, geography has been characterized by many trends.

7. Geography has always combined the work of many disciplines.

Exercise 4. Answer the following questions:

1.Who were natural philosophers with a broad range of knowledge and talents?

2.Who was the best known of the ancient scholars?

3.When did geography experience a new birth after centuries of neglect?

4.What did geographers provide?

5.Who were the fi rst to write and teach as academic geographers?

6.How do many governmental and business agencies employ geographers?

7.When has geography been characterized by several trends?

Exercise 5. Match the word with its definition.

11.trend

12.geography

Unit 2. Meteorology

Part 1

Exercise 1. Put the sentences into the proper order and read the whole paragraph.

a.These include a gradual warming trend since the early 1700s, marked by a general retreat of mountain glaciers and polar pack ice.

b.Evidence from rocks and fossils shows that temperatures on the Earth have generally fallen in the past 200 million years, reaching a low during the ice ages of the Pleistocene epoch, from 2 million to 10,000 years ago.

c.Changes in climate over many millions of years have been extremely great.

d.Evidence from silt and clay deposits and tree growth rings reveals more recent changes.

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Read the whole

paragraph.

There are various theories that attempt to explain changes in climate. One theory is that there have been variations in the amount of (1) … radiated from the sun. Another is that huge quantities of (2) …, put into the atmosphere during periods of intense (3) …, have decreased the amount of solar (4) … reaching the Earth. Another is that increased amounts of (5) …, water vapor, and ozone—from volcanoes and from plants as well—have absorbed more of the sun’s heat and thus raised (6) … temperatures. The addition of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as a result of burning an ever-increasing amount of (7) … may cause global warming of atmosphere and oceans and extreme changes in climate.

Exercise 3. Put the words and phrases of the given sentences into the

proper order. Read the whole paragraph.

1.and in the average / and water surfaces / climate changes / elevation of the land / Geographical theories / in the distribution / of land / relate / to changes.

2.According / are shown to have shifted / for example / of continental drift / of major landmasses / the latitudinal positions / to the theory.

3.Astronomical theories / deal / from the sun / in the Earth’s distance / in the location / in the tilt / of the Earth’s axis / of the poles, and / shifts / variations / with possible changes.

Exercise 4. Look through the paragraphs above and give the title to the

whole text.

Exercise 5. Match the word with its definition.

1. clay a. a trace or print or the remains of a plant or animal of a past age preserved in earth or rock

b. a time of widespread glaciation

c. an earthy material that is sticky and easily molded when wet and hard when baked

d. a layer of wood (as an annual ring) produced during a single period of growth

e. sea ice formed into a mass by the crushing together of chunks and sheets of ice

f. a small amount of liquid that causes moistness

g. to become or cause to become agitated and confused

h. to change from a less dense to a denser form

i. a cumulus cloud that has a low base and that is often spread out in the shape of an anvil extending to great heights

j. small lumps of ice that fall from clouds sometimes during thunderstorms

occur when a fl ow of polar air lifts a warm air mass and when the mean temperature of the air through which the snow falls is below freezing. Big storms occur when the two air masses are blocked by a dawdling high.

When hot, moist air is carried above the freezing level by the strong updraft in a cumulonimbus cloud, thunder and lightning occur along with strong gusts of wind, heavy rain, and sometimes hail. This is a thunderstorm. The West Indies hurricane and the Pacifi c typhoon, powerful storms with torrential rains and winds of 75 miles per hour or more, originate over tropical seas in late summer and early fall when surface temperatures are highest and tropical air reaches farthest from the equator.

The tornado has a narrow, funnel-shaped trunk that reaches down from a dark thundercloud and whirls at speeds up to 300 miles per hour. A tornado moves to the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, to the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. Tornadoes appear most frequently in spring and early summer when cold, dry air fl ows over the Rocky Mountains and overrides the warm, moist air fl owing from the Gulf of Mexico. Turbulence is caused by the sinking cold air and rising warm air.

(adopted from «climate.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago:

Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.)

Exercise 1. Look through the text and copy out proper names and numbers.

Exercise 2. In what context are the proper names and numbers from Exercise 1 mentioned?

Exercise 3. Look through the text and define which of the following keywords are mentioned in it.

sleet engineering hurricanes and typhoons fl ood prevention moist air

Exercise 4. Are the following statements true or false?

1.In thunderstorms, updrafts hurl ice crystals up and up again until they are heavy enough to fall.

2.The water vapor condenses on ice crystals and forms snow crystals.

3.As a cold front moves in, sudden cooling causes snow fl urries.

4.When hot, moist air is carried above the freezing level by the strong updraft in a cumulonimbus cloud, thunder and lightning never occur, as well as strong gusts of wind, heavy rain, and hail.

5.The West Indies hurricane and the Pacifi c typhoon, powerful storms with torrential rains and winds of 75 miles per hour or more, originate over polar seas in late summer and early fall when surface temperatures are highest and cold air reaches farthest from the pole.

6.The tornado has a narrow, funnel-shaped trunk that reaches down from a dark thundercloud and whirls at speeds up to about 500 km per hour.

7. Tornadoes appear most frequently in spring and early summer when cold, moist air fl ows over the Rocky Mountains and overrides the warm, dry air fl owing from the Gulf of Mexico.

Exercise 5. Answer the following questions:

1.When does condensation occur?

2.What happens when air is lifted above the freezing level aloft?

3.How are snowfl akes formed?

4.What types of storms are mentioned in the text?

5.What is a thunderstorm?

6.Where do the West Indies hurricane and the Pacifi c typhoon originate from?

7.What do you know about tornados?

Exercise 6. Match the word with its definition.

11.sleet

12.dust

Part 3

Weather Modifi cation

Smaller efforts at controlling or modifying the weather, such as the use of smudge pots to prevent orchard frosts, utilize relatively manageable engineering. A major breakthrough in weather modifi cation occurred in 1946, when it was discovered that seeding supercooled clouds with dry ice pellets could produce precipitation. The same effect is produced by seeding with silver iodide smoke. Seeding is based on the artifi cial provision of nuclei for the condensation or freezing of water vapor in the air. Most seeding is done from aircraft. Other means include airborne ramjets, rocket and artillery shells, and groundbased generators. Cloud seeding is mainly used to increase precipitation in order to fi ght drought. Some seeding inhibits cloud formation and thus diminishes precipitation. This may be valuable in fl ood prevention.

Seeding experiments are aimed at dispersing fog at airports, reducing the formation of crop-damaging hailstones, preventing forest fi res by suppressing lightning, and reducing the fury of hurricanes. Seeding may also be used to redistribute precipitation and to diminish heavy snowfalls. Because there are large, unexpected natural variations in the weather, it is almost impossible to measure the effectiveness of human intervention. In attempts to increase rainfall, for example, it is diffi cult to determine how much rain would have fallen without seeding.

By the late 1980s, success in controlling the weather was almost entirely limited to increasing precipitation and dispersing fog. Intentional modifi cation of the weather remains speculative. Research in the 1980s emphasized the numerical modeling of small-scale weather systems and cloud physics. By modeling these systems with suffi cient accuracy, researchers were able to determine the kind of action necessary to bring about the desired change in weather.

(adopted from «climate.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago:

Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.)

Exercise 1. Look through the text and copy out numbers.

Exercise 2. In what context are the numbers from Exercise 1 mentioned?

Exercise 3. Look through the text and define which of the following keywords are mentioned in it.

Exercise 4. Are the following statements true or false?

1.A major breakthrough in weather modifi cation was connected with the discovery that seeding supercooled clouds with dry ice pellets could produce precipitation.

2.Seeding is based on the artifi cial provision of nuclei for the heating and evaporating of water in the air.

3.Unfortunately, seeding is not valuable in fl ood prevention.

4.The purpose of seeding experiments is to disperse fog at airports, to reduce the formation of crop-damaging hailstones, to prevent forest fi res by suppressing lightning, and to reduce the fury of hurricanes.

5.It is very easy to measure the effectiveness of human intervention, because there are large, unexpected natural variations in the weather.

6.By the late 1980s, success in controlling the weather went far beyond increasing precipitation and dispersing fog.

7.Research in the 1980s placed great emphasis on the numerical modeling of small-scale weather systems and cloud physics.

Exercise 5. Answer the following questions:

1.What are the means of controlling or modifying the weather?

2.What effect is produced by seeding with silver iodide smoke?

3.What is cloud seeding used for?

4.What are the aims of seeding?

5.Why is it almost impossible to measure the effectiveness of human intervention?

6.Why does the intentional modifi cation of the weather remain speculative?

7.What enables researchers to determine the kind of action necessary to bring about the desired change in weather?

Exercise 6. Match the word with its definition.

11.forest fi re

12.lightning

Unit 3. Climatology

Part 1

Exercise 1. Put the sentences into correct order. Read the whole paragraph.

a.In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, me- so-and synoptic scale meteorology.

b.Other subclassifi cations are available based on the need by humans, or by the unique, local or broad effects that are studied within that sub-class.

c.At one extreme of this scale is climatology.

d.Respectively, the geospatial size of each of these three scales relates directly with the appropriate timescale.

e.In the study of the atmosphere, meteorology can be divided into distinct areas of emphasis depending on the temporal scope and spatial scope of interest.

Exercise 2. Put the words and phrases of the given sentences into the proper order. Read the whole paragraph.

1.Boundary layer meteorology / in the air layer / known as / directly above Earth’s surface / is the study of processes / or peplosphere / the atmospheric boundary layer.

2.cause turbulent mixing / The effects of the surface / within the air layer / heating, cooling, and friction.

3.or momentum on time scales / Signifi cant fl uxes of heat, matter / are advected by / of less than a day / turbulent motions.

4.Boundary layer meteorology / of surface-atmosphere boundary / including ocean / includes the study of all types / lake, urban land / and non-urban land.

Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Read the whole paragraph.

climate extratropical meteorology microscale synoptic tropical troposphere vertical weather

Mesoscale (1) … is the study of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from (2) … limits to (3) … scale limits and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth’s surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, (4) …, tropopause, and the lower section of the stratosphere. Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to the lifetime of the event, which in some cases can be weeks. The events typically of interest are thunderstorms, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands in (5) … and extratropical cyclones, and topographically generated weather systems such as mountain waves and sea and land breezes.

Synoptic scale meteorology is generally large area dynamics referred to in horizontal coordinates and with respect to time. The phenomena typically described by synoptic meteorology include events like (6) … cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and to some extent jets. All of these are typically given on (7) … maps for a specifi c time. The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena is limited to the spacing between surface observation stations.

Exercise 4. Look through the paragraphs above and give the title to the whole text.

Exercise 5. Match the word with its definition.

11.trough

12.ridge

(adopted from «climatology.» Britannica Student Library. Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.)

Part 2

In contrast to meteorology, which studies short term weather systems lasting up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those