Учебное пособие по английскому

Missed, like, known, possible, certainly, complete, matched, seen, similar,

equal.

Task 2. Find the keywords in the each paragraph.

Task 3. Give your answers to the following questions.

•What is quantum physics?

•What do you mean by “paradox”?

Task 4. Translate paragraphs 1-7 in writing.

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Text 7

SCIENCE, SPIRITUALITY, AND SOME MISMATCHED SOCKS

Part 2

Other scientists have gotten a more direct look at the particles' secret behavior. They pulled off this feat by resolving something called Hardy's paradox, which basically addressed one of the trickiest aspects of quantum physics: by observing a particle you might affect its property.

In 1990, the English physicist Lucien Hardy devised a thought experiment. The common view was that when a particle met its antiparticle, the pair destroyed each other in an explosion. But Mr. Hardy noted that in some cases when the particles' interaction wasn't observed, they wouldn't annihilate each other. The paradox: Because the interaction had to remain unseen, it couldn't be confirmed.

In a striking achievement, scientists from Osaka University have resolved the paradox. They used extremely weak measurements -- the equivalent of a sidelong glance, as it were -- that didn't disturb the photons' state. By doing the experiment multiple times and pooling those weak measurements, they got enough good data to show that the particles didn't annihilate. The conclusion: When the particles weren't observed, they behaved differently.

In a paper published in the New Journal of Physics, the Japanese team acknowledged that their result was "preposterous." Yet, they noted, it "gives us new insights into the spooky nature of quantum mechanics." A team from the University of Toronto published similar results some months later.

Some researchers are using the uncertain state of photons to solve real-world problems. When encrypting sensitive data such as a bank transfer, both the sending party and the receiving party must have the same key. The sender needs the key to hide the message and the receiver to reveal it. Since it isn't always practical to exchange keys in person, the key must be sent electronically, too. This means the key (and the messages) may be intercepted and read by an eavesdropper.

An electronic key is usually written in the computer binary code of "ones" and "zeros." Quantum physics permits a more sophisticated approach. The same "ones" and "zeros" can now be encoded by using the properties of photons, like spin. If someone intercepts a photon-based message, the spins change. The receiver then knows the key has been compromised.

MagiQ Technologies Inc. of Cambridge, Mass., refreshes its quantum keys as often as 100 times a second during a transmission, making it extremely hard to break. It sells its technology to banks and companies. Dr. Gisin is a founder of ID Quantique SA in Switzerland. The company's similar encryption tool is used by online lottery and poker firms to safely communicate winning numbers and winning hands. Votes cast in a recent Swiss federal election were sent in a similar way.

Because of its bizarre implications, quantum theory has been used to investigate everything from free will and the paranormal to the enigma of consciousness. Several serious physicists have devoted their lives to the study of such

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ideas, including Bernard d'Espagnat. The 87-year-old Frenchman won the prestigious $1.5 million Templeton Prize for years of work affirming "life's spiritual dimension."

Based on quantum behavior, Dr. d'Espagnat's big idea is that science can only probe so far into what is real, and there's a "veiled reality" that will always elude us. Many scientists disagree. While Dr. d'Espagnat concedes that he can't prove his theory, he argues that it's about the notion of mystery. "The emotions you get from listening to Mozart," he says, "are like the faint glimpses of ultimate reality we get" from quantum experiments. "I claim nothing more."

Notes:

•eavesdropper - подслушивающий, соглядатай

•bizarre - неестественный, ненормальный, причудливый, странный, эксцентричный

Task 1. Divide the article into its logical parts and title them.

Task 2. Explain “Einstein-Podolsky-Rozen paradox” in your own words. Task 3. What can you add to the article?

Task 4. Topics for discussion:

1.How do you understand the title?

2.How does the EPR-paradox correlate with quantum theory?

3.What applications for EPR-paradox can be offered?

Text 8

MACHINE TRANSLATION TODAY AND TOMORROW

Part 1

The field of machine translation (MT) was the pioneer research area in computational linguistics during the 1950s and 1960s. When it began, the assumed goal was the automatic translation of all kinds of documents at a quality equaling that of the best human translators. It became apparent very soon that this goal was impossible in the foreseeable future. Human revision of MT output was essential if the results were to be published in any form. At the same time, however, it was found that for many purposes the crude (unedited) MT output could be useful to those who wanted to get a general idea of the content of a text in an unknown language as quickly as possible. For many years, however, this latter use of MT (i.e. as a tool of assimilation, for information gathering and monitoring) was largely ignored. It was assumed that MT should be devoted only to the production of human-quality translations (for dissemination). Many large organizations have large volumes of technical and administrative documentation that have to be translated into many languages. For many years, MT with human assistance has been a cost-effective option for multinational corporations and other multilingual bodies (e.g. the European Union). MT systems produce rough translations which are then revised (post-edited) by translators. But post-editing to an acceptable quality can be expensive, and many organizations reduce costs and improve MT output by the use of ‘controlled’

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languages, i.e. by reducing (or even eliminating) lexical ambiguity and simplifying complex sentence structures – which may itself enhance the comprehensibility of the original texts. In this way, translation processes are closely linked to technical writing and integrated in the whole documentation workflow, making possible further savings in time and costs. At the same time as organizations have made effective use of MT systems, human translators have been greatly assisted by computer-based translation support tools, e.g. for terminology management, for creating in-house dictionaries and glossaries, for indexing and concordances, for post-editing facilities, and above all (since the end of the 1980s) for storing and searching databases of previously translated texts (‘translation memories’). Most commonly these tools are combined in translator workstations – which often incorporate full MT systems as well. Indeed, the converse is now true: MT systems designed for large organizations are including translation memories and other translation tools. As far as systems for dissemination (publishable translations) are concerned the old distinctions between human-assisted MT and computer-aided translation are being blurred, and in the near future may be irrelevant. It is widely agreed that where translation has to be of publishable quality, both human translation and MT have their roles. Machine translation is demonstrably cost-effective for large scale and/or rapid translation of technical documentation and software localization materials. In these and many other situations, the costs of MT plus essential human preparation and revision or the costs of using computerized translation tools (workstations, translation memories, etc.) are significantly less than those of traditional human translation with no computer aids. By contrast, the human translator is (and will remain) unrivalled for non-repetitive linguistically sophisticated texts (e.g. in literature and law), and even for one-off texts in highly specialized technical subjects. However, translation does not have to be always of publishable quality. Speed and accessibility may be more important. From the beginnings of MT, unrevised translations from MT systems have been found useful for low-circulation technical reports, administrative memoranda, intelligence activities, personal correspondence, indeed whenever a document is to be read by just one or two people interested only in the essential message and unconcerned about stylistic quality or even exact terminology. The range of options has expanded significantly since the early 1990s, with the increasing use and rapid development of personal computers and the Internet.

Notes:

dissemination - разбрасывание, рассеивание, распространение ambiguity –неопределённость, неясность; двусмысленность concordance – согласие; согласованность

Task 1. Find synonyms for the following adjectives:

Equal, useful, general, quick, rough, expensive, complex, significant, powerful,

real.

Task 2. Complete the phrases with say or tell as appropriate.

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1.… a story

2.…the time

3.…as far as I can …

4.…yes or no

5.…somebody to do something

6.…somebody what to do

7.… hello

8.…a lie

9.…what you mean

10.…something under your breath

Task 3. Find all collocations with MT and translate them.

Task 4. Divide the text into its logical paragraphs. Find the main idea of each paragraph.

Task 5. In each paragraph find the sentence that isn’t important for understanding.

Text 8

MACHINE TRANSLATION TODAY AND TOMORROW

Part 2

1. More powerful PCs have encouraged the marketing of translation software for the general public. As general-purpose systems, the quality is inevitably poor. Input texts often contain high proportions of non-technical, colloquial language of the kind which MT systems have always found most problematic. Quality is usually not good enough for professional translators (although some use the output for drafts), but it is found adequate for individual ‘occasional’ users, e.g. for gist of foreign texts in their own language, for communicating with others in unknown languages, and for translating Web pages and electronic mail It is the coming of online translation on the Internet, however, that has brought the most significant changes, with potentially farreaching implications for the future. Exposure to information in many languages has created a rapidly growing demand, and this may well be MT’s niche market: the realtime online supply of rough translations to support personal communication and information needs. The quality of the translations can be (and frequently is) ridiculed, but there is no doubt that the output is useful, particularly if the source language is not known at all and if the subject and context are familiar to some extent. The situation is unlikely to improve much (at least in the near future), but some quality improvements may come with specialization, i.e. by the development of systems designed for specific subject areas (as in the large-organization systems), or for specific document types (e.g. patents, letters), or even for specific language registers (e.g. email and text messaging). There are already stand-alone PC systems for

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medical translation and for patent documents, but the Internet would be the obvious home for such specialized MT systems. They will probably not be free (as many online translation services are now), but users will surely accept charges for better quality.

2.On the other hand, the ready availability of low-quality MT from Internet services and from commercial stand-alone software could well increase the demand for higher-quality human translation, particularly from those with no previous experience of translation. Some suppliers of online translation are already providing add-on human translation services (e.g. post-editing or full translation). Currently they are used mainly by organizations without their own translation services, but wider use may be expected in the future.

3.For Internet users, a desirable development would be integration with other language applications. What users are seeking is information, in whatever language it may have been written or stored – translation is just a means to that end. Many would welcome the seamless integration of translation with summarization, database mining, document retrieval, information extraction, etc. There is already research on cross-lingual information retrieval, multilingual summarization, multilingual text generation from databases, and so forth, and before many years there may well be systems available on the market and on the Internet.

Perhaps most desired of all are systems capable of translating spoken language – not just for trained speakers in restricted domains (e.g. hotel booking and business negotiations, as in current research projects in Japan, USA and Germany), but for all speakers in all situations.

4.Users will want reliable and accurate results – poor quality text can re-read and puzzled over, spoken output must be understood immediately. Automatic speech translation of open-ended communication will not come in the near future, and may never be possible, but in the medium term we may expect to have systems capable of translating the utterances of most speakers in well defined situations (banks, theatres, airports, rail stations, etc.)

5.At a more mundane level, the language coverage of all MT systems needs to be wider. Currently, most concentrate on the major commercial languages (English, French, German, Spanish, Japanese, Chinese, Korean); and many languages spoken by large populations in developing countries have been ignored by software companies and even by research groups.

Equally, there is a real need for systems to deal with the kind of colloquial (often ill formed and

badly spelled) language found in emails and chatrooms.

6.The traditional rule-based approaches found in current systems are probably not equal to these tasks on their own. In MT research, there is much interest in exploring new techniques in neural networks, parallel processing, and particularly in corpusbased approaches: statistical text analysis (alignment, etc.), example-based machine translation, hybrid systems combining traditional linguistic rules and statistical methods, and so forth. Above all, the crucial problem of lexicon acquisition (always a bottleneck for MT) is receiving major attention by many research groups, in particular by exploiting the large lexical and text resources now available (e.g. from

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LDC, ELRA, and the Internet itself). These developments promise faster system development times, and wider deeper language coverage.

7. In time there will be fewer ‘pure’ MT systems (commercial, online, or otherwise) and more computer-based tools and applications where automatic translation is just one component – this will be the case particularly with specialized systems for specific users and specific domains. Integrated translation software will be the norm, available and accessible for anyone from their own computer (desktop, laptop, network-based, etc.) and from other equipment linked to networks (televisions, mobile telephones, hand-held devices, etc.). Most probably, software will no longer be bought for stand-alone computers (whether PCs or client-servers) but accessed from the Internet as and when required. Automatic translation will become an everyday and essential part of the global information society.

Notes:

inevitably – неизбежно, неминуемо colloquial – разговорный; нелитературный

utterance – выражение в словах, произнесение; произнести, выразить что-то; высказывание

mundane – обычный, приземлённый

Task 1. Use the correct ending (-ance, -ence, -ion, -ation) to form nouns from the given verbs.

Create, offend, form, defend, allow, inspect, resist, prefer, interpret, inform.

Task 2. Translate paragraphs 1 and 2 in writing.

Task 3. Compress the text.

Task 4. Write the plan of the whole text.

Task 5. Topics for discussion.

1.What is the main application of MT?

2.Have you ever used MT? How useful was it?

3.What is the past of MT? What is its future?

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Text 9

THE COLOR OF THE SEA

The sea, the sky and other features of the natural world have provided inspiration for many of the great scientific discoveries of humankind. The world of optics is no exception. In 1921, C.V. Raman took an oceanic voyage that led him to study the scattering of light and ultimately discover the vibrational effect that would come to bear his name.

Recently I took a vacation on a cruise ship in the Sea of Cortez off Baja California. Looking out at the fabulous blue color of the sea, I was put in mind of Chandrasekhara Venkata (C.V.) Raman, a boy genius and Palit Chair of Physics at Calcutta University by the age of 29. Raman made his first trip abroad by ship to attend the Congress of the Universities of the British Empire in London in 1921. That trip was to be of singular importance in Raman's life and the field of optics.

Prior to this journey, Raman had spent much of his time studying vibrational and acoustical effects of various kinds. During his stay in London, he visited St. Paul's Cathedral. He was fascinated by the "whispering gallery:" an acoustic phenomenon that allowed a whisper uttered on one side of the circular gallery at the base of St. Paul's great dome to be heard on the opposite side, some 43 m away. Before he left London, Raman had published one of his many letters to Nature explaining the phenomenon and refuting an earlier theory put forward by Lord Rayleigh, 1904 Nobel laureate in physics. This simple tourist encounter is at least partly responsible for the whispering gallery mode lasers in use today ... but I digress.

Raman traveled to and from England by sea. It is said that he sat for hours on the upper deck of the ocean liner staring at the deep blue color of the Mediterranean. During the voyage, Raman conducted experiments peering into the depths of the water using the Nicol (calcium calcite polarization) prism he always carried. He sent a second letter to Nature, titled, "The Colour of the Sea," before even setting foot on dry land, from the .S. S. Narkunda) in Bombay Harbour on September 26, 1921.

Rayleigh had proposed that the ocean's blue color resulted from reflected sky light and absorption by matter suspended in the water. Raman's experiments clearly showed that the blue color was independent of reflection and absorption and due instead to molecular diffraction—most likely from water molecules themselves. These simple experiments led Raman to pursue more detailed studies of light scattering once back home in Calcutta.

In 1923, Compton proved the concept put forward by Planck and Einstein that radiation is not only wave-like, but also particle-like, in nature. When a beam of radiation traverses an atom, most of the radiation is elastically scattered and therefore of unchanged wavelength. Using a graphite target, Compton showed that a small fraction of the radiation emerged in directions other than that of the incident beam due to inelastic scattering of the X-rays by electrons. Inspired by Compton's discovery, Smekal predicted that photons should likewise be scattered inelastically by vibrational transitions within molecules.

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Raman and his colleagues at the University of Calcutta and the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science set out to prove Smekal right. We now know that one of the characteristics of inelastic scattering is that its intensity scales to the fourth power of the energy. This meant that the inelastic scattering effect that Raman sought using visible light (about 500 nm) was at least 10 orders of magnitude weaker than that observed by Compton using X-rays (0.7 nm).

Raman observed this weak effect by using the most intense light source available at the time: the sun. In his initial experiments, he used a 7-in. reflecting telescope in combination with a short focal length eyepiece to focus sunlight onto a purified liquid or its dust-free vapor. He then used complementary yellow-green and blue-violet filters to observe the incident and scattered beams. Using this simple experimental apparatus, Raman discovered that a small amount of the incident light had been inelastically scattered by the molecules in the liquid and shifted in energy into another part of the spectrum. He later observed this shift in wavelength as additional bands on a spectrograph.

This remarkable discovery was made on Monday, February 27, 1928, and described by K.S. Krishnan, Raman's student, in his diary:

Went to the Association in the afternoon. Professor was there. Started studying the effect of incident light wavelength on the new scattering effect. Astonished to see that the scattered radiation has wavelength different from the incident one wavelength higher and shorter than that of the incident radiation.

Raman didn't waste any time. That Friday, March 31,1928, he and Krishnan published another letter in Nature, titled, "A New Type of Secondary Radiation," which described what would later be known as the Raman effect or Raman shift.

The amount of work that Raman and Krishnan accomplished in such a short time is amazing as well. They reported in Nature that: "Some 60 different common liquids have been examined in this way, and every one of them showed the effect in greater or lesser degree." Equally astonishing is the speed with which the field adopted Raman's discovery. By August of the following year, there were already 150 scientific publications related to the Raman effect.

That year, 1929, Raman was nominated for the Nobel Prize in physics. But the prize went instead to Louis de Broglie for his work on the wave nature of the electron. Raman was nominated again in 1930 and, just two years after his initial experiment, he was awarded the prize at the age of 42. Although this might seem fast, it was in keeping with the wishes of Alfred Bernhard Nobel, who willed that the proceeds of his estate be "distributed in the form of prizes to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit to mankind." It was clearly Nobel's plan to reward recent discoveries—a concept seemingly forgotten today, when it can easily take a year or longer to publish a manuscript.

Raman spectroscopy quickly became the technique of choice for conducting molecular vibrational studies. However, after World War II, it fell out of favor and was largely replaced by then-simpler infrared and near infrared spectroscopy techniques. Like the technique it inspired, the S.S. Narkunda fell on bad times. After being pressed into use as a troop carrier, it was sunk by the German Lufthansa in 1942.

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