билеты по теор грамматике

In traditional grammar, the study of the morphemic structure of the word is based on two criteria: the positional criterion - the location of the morphemes with regard to each other, and the semantic (or functional) criterion - the contribution of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word.

According to these criteria morphemes are divided into roots and affixes. Roots express the concrete, “material” part of the meaning of the word and constitute its central part. Affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word: they specify, or transform the meaning of the root. Affixal specification may be of two kinds: of lexical or grammatical character. So, according to the semantic criterion affixes are further subdivided into lexical, or word-building (derivational) affixes, which together with the root constitute the stem of the word, and grammatical, or word-changing affixes, expressing different morphological categories, such as number, case, tense and others. With the help of lexical affixes new words are derived, or built; with the help of grammatical affixes the form of the word is changed.

According to the positional criterion affixes are divided into prefixes, situated before the root in the word, e.g.: under-estimate, and suffixes, situated after the root, e.g.: underestim-ate. Prefixes in English are only lexical. Suffixes in English may be either lexical or grammatical; e.g. in the word underestimates -ate is a lexical suffix, because it is used to derive the verb estimate (v) from the noun esteem (n), and –s is a grammatical suffiх. Grammatical suffixes are also called inflexions (inflections, inflectional endings).

20. Синтаксис. Сложноподчинённое предложение (деривация сложноподчинённого предложения; главное предложение и придаточное предложение; классификация сложноподчинённых предложений по типам придаточных предложений).

Composite sentences are polypredicative syntactic constructions, formed by two or more predicative lines, each with a subject and a predicate of its own. Composite sentence reflects two or more situations or events making up a unity.

Each predicative unit in a composite sentence forms a clause. A clause as a part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence. Cf.: This is the issue I planned to discuss with you. - This is the issue. I planned to discuss it with you. The purpose of communication in the composite sentence above is the presentation of a certain topic.

There are two principal types of composite sentences: complex and compound. In compound sentences, the clauses are connected on the basis of coordinative connections; by coordination the clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently. In complex sentences, the clauses are united on the basis of subordinative connections; by subordination the clauses are arranged as units of syntactically unequal rank, one of which dominates another.

The connections between the clauses in a composite sentence may be effected by means of special connecting words, conjunctions and other conjunctional words or word-combinations, or asyndetically, i.e. without any conjunctional words used.

There is some controversy concerning the status of syndeton and asyndeton versus coordination and subordination. According to the traditional view, all composite sentences are to be subdivided on the upper level into compound and complex, and on the lower level of subdivision each type is represented by syndetic and asyndetic connections. This view was challenged by N. S. Pospelov: at the higher level of classification all composite sentences should be divided into syndetic and asyndetic, while at the lower level the syndetic composite sentences should be divided into compound and complex ones in accordance with the connective words used.

21. Синтаксис. Сложноподчинённое предложение (придаточные предложения первичных номинативных функций).

Composite sentences are polypredicative syntactic constructions, formed by two or more predicative lines, each with a subject and a predicate of its own. Composite sentence reflects two or more situations or events making up a unity.

?? Each predicative unit in a composite sentence forms a clause. A clause as a part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence. Cf.: This is the issue I planned to discuss with you. - This is the issue. I planned to discuss it with you. The purpose of communication in the composite sentence above is the presentation of a certain topic.

!!!Clauses of primary nominal positions, including subject, predicative and object clauses, are interchangeable with each other, cf.: What you see is what you get; What you get is what you see. The subject clause regularly expresses the theme of a complex sentence, and the predicative clause regularly expresses its rheme. The subject clause may express the rheme of the sentence, if it is introduced by the anticipatory ‘it’, e.g.: It is true that he stole the jewels. The subject clause in such complex sentences is at the same time appositive.

The status of the object clause is most obvious in its prepositional introduction (as in the example above). Sometimes it is mixed with other functional semantics, determined by the connectors, in particular, with adverbial relational meanings, e.g.: Do you know when they are coming? A separate group of object clauses are those presenting the chunks of speech and mental activity processes, traditionally discussed under the heading “the rules of reported speech”, e.g.: She said she would come early. 22. Синтаксис. Сложноподчинённое предложение (придаточные предложения вторичных номинативных функций).

Composite sentences are polypredicative syntactic constructions, formed by two or more predicative lines, each with a subject and a predicate of its own. Composite sentence reflects two or more situations or events making up a unity.

?? Each predicative unit in a composite sentence forms a clause. A clause as a part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence. Cf.: This is the issue I planned to discuss with you. - This is the issue. I planned to discuss it with you. The purpose of communication in the composite sentence above is the presentation of a certain topic.

Clauses of secondary nominal positions, including various attributive clauses, fall into two major groups: “descriptive” attributive clauses and “restrictive” attributive clauses. The descriptive attributive clause exposes some characteristic of the antecedent as such, while the restrictive attributive clause performs a purely identifying role, singling (прореживание) out the referent of the antecedent in the situation, cf.: I know a man who can help us (descriptive attributive clause). This is the man whom I met yesterday (restrictive attributive clause).

Some descriptive attributive clauses are attributive only in form, but semantically, they present a new event which somehow continues the chain of events reflected by the sentence as a whole; these complex sentences can be easily transformed into compound sentences, e.g.: We caught a breeze that took us gently up the river. - We caught a breeze and it took us gently up the river.

23. Синтаксис. Сложноподчинённое предложение (придаточные предложения адвербиальных функций).

Composite sentences are polypredicative syntactic constructions, formed by two or more predicative lines, each with a subject and a predicate of its own. Composite sentence reflects two or more situations or events making up a unity.

?? Each predicative unit in a composite sentence forms a clause. A clause as a part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence. Cf.: This is the issue I planned to discuss with you. - This is the issue. I planned to discuss it with you. The purpose of communication in the composite sentence above is the presentation of a certain topic.

!!!Subordinate clauses of adverbial positions name a certain event, which is referred, as a characteristic to another event, to a process or a quality, e.g.: I won’t leave until you come.

Clauses of adverbial positions make up the most numerous and the most complicated group of subordinate clauses, reflecting the intricacy of various relations between events and processes. The following big groups of adverbial clauses can be distinguished. First, clauses of time and clauses of place render the semantics of temporal and spatial localization. Second, clauses of manner and comparison give a qualification to the action or event rendered by the principal clause. Third, the most numerous group, adverbial clauses of different circumstantial semantics includes “classical” subordinate clauses of attendant event, condition, cause (reason), result (consequence), concession, and purpose. Fourth, a separate group of adverbial clauses is formed by subordinate clauses which function as parenthetical enclosures, inserted into composite syntactic constructions by a loose connection.

26. Семантический синтаксис. Типы предикатов. Типология предикативных актантов.

Syntax can in linguistics be described as the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Syntax attempts to systematize descriptive grammar, and is unconcerned with prescriptive grammar (see Prescription and description).

As has been mentioned before, the compound sentence is a polypredicative construction built on the principle of coordination (parataxis); the clauses of a compound sentence are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, equipotently. Paradigmatically, the compound sentence is derived from two or more base sentences, joined as coordinate clauses. One of them becomes the leading clause (the “leader” clause), and the other clauses, which may or may not include the coordinative connector, occupy the dependent sentential position and may be called sequential clauses.

There has been some controversy concerning the syntactic status of the compound sentence: some linguists maintain that it is not a specific syntactic construction, but a sequence of separate sentences similar to the combination of semantically related independent sentences in speech, as in supra-sentential constructions in the text.

Coordination, just like subordination, can be expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically. Coordinative connectors, or coordinators, are divided into conjunctions proper, e.g.: and, but, or, for, either…or, neither… nor, etc., and semi-functional connectors of adverbial character, e.g.: nevertheless, besides, however, yet, thus, so, etc.

Semantically, connections between coordinated clauses can be subdivided into two types: marked coordinative connection and unmarked coordinative connection.

27. Семантический синтаксис. Предикативные и непредикативные функторы. Операторы.

Syntax can in linguistics be described as the study of the rules, or "patterned relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Syntax attempts to systematize descriptive grammar, and is unconcerned with prescriptive grammar (see Prescription and description).

The Predicate is the part of the sentence which expresses a predicative feature attributed to the subject of the sentence. Like the subject, the predicate also carries out a triple function in the sentence: structural, semantic and communicative.

Its structural function consists in establishing the syntactic relations with the subject and other parts of the sentence. The semantic function of the predicate finds its expression in attributing certain features to the subject. Its communicative function is manifested in the fact that through the predicate and the expression of predication the sentence becomes a minimal unit of communication.

The predicate is 'the structural and semantic center of the sentence’. In the structure of a simple, two-member sentence the predicate usually carries out the function of the rheme, He disappeared.

According to the form of expression predicates are divided into verbal and nominal: The moon rose. The moon was pale. There exists a phraseological predicate (presents a combination of such verbs as have, get, give, take and a verbal noun (give a look, take a bath, have a smoke). From the grammatical point of view the most important characteristic of this type of predicate is not so much its phraseological but its analytical character (all analytical structures are characterized by idiomaticity of their components).

The verb expresses the grammatical meaning and the verbal noun expresses a lexical meaning. The two formal types of the predicate correspond to the two main semantic types: process predicate which expresses the action, the state or the existence of the subject and qualification predicate which expresses the quality (property) of the subject.

The process predicate can be further subdivided into several types in accordance with the semantic types of verbs: existential (There was a tavern in the town), statal (He slept), locative (The elephant lives in India), relational (He had a small ranch) and actional (The car broke down). ). The qualification predicate has three subtypes: identifying (So you are the man we have been looking for), classifying (My friend is a student) and characterizing (My wife is a bit of an actress. He was too German).

Structurally the predicate may be divided into simple and compound. We said good- bye - a simple verbal predicate; It was a lovely place -simple nominal predicate. The predicate is compounded by the introduction of modal components. We started saying good-bye - a compound verbal predicate; It must be a lovely place - a compound nominal predicate.

36. Категории личного глагола (видовая характеристика личного глагола).

The verb is a part of speech with grammatical meaning of process of action. Verb performs the central role of the predicative function of the sentence. ?Verb is a very complex phenomenon and first of all because of its sub-class division. The first division is into two large sets: the finite set and non-finite set. ?

TENSE as a grammatical category

The grammatical expression of verbal time through morphological forms of the verbs constitutes the grammatical category of tense (from the Latin word “tempus” – “time”).

The tense category in English differs a lot from the verbal categories of tense in other languages, for example, in Russian. The tense category in Russian renders absolutive time semantics

3 Russian verbal tense forms present the events as developing in time in a linear way from the past to the future, cf.: Он работал вчера; Он сегодня работает; Он будет работать завтра.

In English there are four verbal tense forms: the present (work), the past (worked), the future (shall/will work), and the future-in-the-past (should/would work).

The two future tense forms of the verb express the future in two separate ways:

as an after-event in relation to the present, e.g.: He will work tomorrow (not right not),.

as an after-event in relation to the past, e.g.: He said he would work the next day.

The future forms of the verb in English express relative time – posteriority in relation to either the present or the past.

The present and the past forms of the verb render absolutive time semantics, referring the events to the present or to the the past; this involves all the finite verb forms, including the perfect, the continuous, and the future forms.

Thus, there is not just one verbal category of tense in English but two interconnected tense categories, one of them rendering absolutive time semantics by way of retrospect (past vs. present) and the other rendering relative time semantics by way of prospect (after-action vs. non-after-action).

So logically one and the same category cannot be expressed twice in one and the same form: the members of the paradigm should be mutually exclusive; the existence of a specific future-in-the-past form shows that there are two tense categories in English.

39. Оппозиционное замещение по категориальным оппозициям глагола.

The category of Mood is the most controversial category of the verb.

The category of mood in the present English verb has given rise to so many discussions, and has been treated in so many different ways, that it seems hardly possible to arrive at any more less convincing and universally acceptable conclusion concerning it.

The category of Mood expresses the relations between the action, denoted by the verb, and the actual reality from the point of view of the speaker. The speaker may treat the action/event as real, unreal or problematic or as fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or as an imaginary phenomenon.

Mood relates the verbal action to such conditions as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility.

The most disputable question in the category of mood is the problem of number and types of Obligue Moods. Obligue Moods denote unreal or problematic actions so they can't be modified by the category of tense proper. They denote only relative time, that is simultaneousness or priority. Due to the variety of forms it's impossible to make up regular paradigms of Obligue Moods and so classify them.

Some authors pay more attention to the plane of expression, other to the plane of content. So different authors speak of different number and types of moods. The most popular in Grammar has become the system of moods put forward By Prof. Smirnitsky. He speaks of 6 mood forms:

The Indicative Mood; The Imperative Mood; Subjunctive I; Subjunctive II; The Conditional Mood; The Suppositional Mood.

45. Прагматический синтаксис. Теория речевых актов. Теория пресуппозиции.

Pragmatics itself studies how transmission of meaning depends not only on the linguistic knowledge of the speaker and listener, but also on the context of an utterance, knowledge about the status of those involved, the inferred intent of the speaker and so on. That is why when dealing with pragmatic syntax, in the focus of linguistic study are interrelations between language units and those who use them. !The character of speech act is determined by pragmatic peculiarities of the communicative situation, that include time and space characteristics of the communicative process, individual characteristics of both, the speaker and the listener, that si their social status, status in the process of communication, sex, age, level of education, psychological characteristics, etc.

Development of the theory of speech acts began in the middle of the XX century, when representatives of Oxford school (J. Austin, J. Searle) started studying language in its everyday functioning. The core of linguistic study was a person with its own aims and tasks, conditions of the communicative situation that serve to achieve these aims and tasks with a positive result. Great variety of extralinguistic factors were included in the sphere of interest of researchers, such as: language competency of those involved in the communicative process, speech etiquette, interrelations of the speaker and listener in the process of communication..

Typologically speech acts are subdivided into: 1) locutionary acts – meaningful utterance; 2) illocutionary acts – meaningful utterance with certain performative force; 3) perlocutionary acts – meaningful utterance with certain performative force non-conventionally bringing about certain effect.

This typological classification revealed that every language has its own nomenclature of actions, such as: warning, informing, etc. J. Austin didn’t give direct definition of illocutionary act, but his studies helped further differentiation it from locutionary act by discovering intentional peculiarities of an utterance and its conventional aspect.

J. Searle focused on studying illocutionary speech acts and found out that they differ from one another not only by its aim but also by various other peculiarities. He introduced the most basic classification of illocutionary acts. He divided illocutionary acts into five groups:

- representatives – which can be in form of classification, forecast, promise, etc.;

- directives – illocutionary acts represented in advice, instructions, etc.;

-commissives – illocutionary acts represented in promises and oaths;

- expressives – aimed to reflect certain psychoilogival state of the speaker, as a rection to the reality, limited by a propositional frame;

-declarations – speech acts that change the reality in accordance with the proposition of declaration;