Supplementary Texts Before Ford
In 1879, three years after the Philadelphia Centennial, George Selden registered a historic patent for a 'horseless carriage' driven by an internal combustion engine. This patent was to influence the development of the American motor industry for years, to the point where Henry Ford had attempted to break this monopoly.
The patent did not, however, have any immediate effect on development. Although Selden sensed the tremendous potential of the internal combustion engine and the motor car, he was not particularly interested in their commercial production. Nevertheless, after a few years a number of studies and actual construction began to appear—without any direct connection with the European industry which remained relatively advanced and of purely transatlantic origin. Among these was that of Elwood Haynes who, after having exhibited his engine at Philadelphia, built his first vehicle in 1888 with a petrol engine which, like that in the show, had a carburettor which vaporised petrol through a wick. In the same year there were public demonstrations in New York and in Elizabeth, New Jersey, of a petrol-driven tram.
Internal combustion-engined vehicles were also built in the same period by E.J. Pennington, FA. Huntington, and WT. Harris, that of Pennington being worthy of particular mention for having covered a mile in 58 seconds. The exceptional power of this engine was largely due to a system of double ignition which led, however, to considerable difficulties with overheating.
None of these prototypes led to commercial production, nor did that of Henry Nadig, a mechanic of German origin who, with his two sons, built a rudimentary vehicle in Pennsylvania, powered by a petrol engine inspired by Daimler's.
A similar vehicle was built by another mechanic of German origin, Gottfried Schloemer, who appeared in the streets in 1890 with a machine which reached the then respectable speed of 12 mph.
The list of American pioneers of this period includes Charles H. Black, who built an internal combustion-engined tricycle in 1891, and J.I. Case, who founded a factory for commercial tractors in 1892. lb these should be added the name of Charles B. King, who was the first to introduce the embryonic industry to Detroit — future world capital of the motorcar. However, the most interesting vehicle of this period was the famous four-wheeler built at Springfield in 1893 by two brothers, Charles and Frank Duryea2. It was powered by a single cylinder internal combustion engine with electrical ignition and spray carburation, the first in the USA, both designed by Frank Duryea. One year later the Duryeas, who like so many other pioneers had progressed
to the motor car by way of the bicycle, produced a second model which, among other things, won the first American motor race—the Chicago-Evanston—at a speed of some S3 mph in contrast with the first vehicle, a two-stroke, this one had a four-stroke engine.
In the same period the Duryeas formed the first American motor company — the Duryea Wagon Company; but at the same time there arose fundamental differences between them. Frank left the company, which went into liquidation after having produced only 12 cars.
One other item of interest associated with the name of Duryea is the bitter controversy which was to arise in 1912 between Charles Duryea and Elwood Haynes, after the Smithsonian Institution had solemnly attributed to the latter the credit of being the first pioneer of the motorcar in America. In fact, the award was made in 1906, but it was only in 1912, when Haynes began to boast of it, that Duryea attacked. In the light of the evidence he presented, the Smithsonian had to recognise Duryea's claim.
It is worthy of note that one year after the Duryea Company was formed Henry Ford made his first appearance in motor car history, driving his experimental 4 hp cycle-car. This, however, is the beginning of a story which will be told later.
Commentaries
1. George Selden — Джордж Селден (1846-1932), американский изобретатель и юрист, запатентовавший в 1879 году устройство автомобиля и построивший его по своему проекту в 1910 году
(«повозка Селдена»). Под маркой «Селден» в США выпускались грузовые автомобили (1906-14).
2. Charles and Frank Duryea - Чарльз (1861-1938) и Франк (1969-1967) Дурие, основатели первой в Америке компании (The Duryea Motor Wagon Co.) по производству автомобилей с двигателями внутреннего сгорания.
Alternative Propulsion - Steam
It must not be assumed that vehicles powered by engines other than Internal combustion had disappeared as a result of these world developments. In parallel with the growth of internal combustion on both sides of the Atlantic runs the story of the development of vehicles powered by steam and by electricity.
As fas as steam propulsion is concerned, an Italian engineer, Enrico, designed a steam lorry in 1883, though it is doubtful if this was ever built. In 1888, however, Leon Serpollet, a French engineer from Culoz, built a revolutionary 'flash' boiler producing instantaneous steam. Two years later he made a memorable journey from Paris to Lyons in 10 days using a tricycle so equipped. (A Serpollet 'steamer' was to achieve a speed of 120,771 kph — around 75 mph — in 1902, establishing a world land speed record.)
In the meantime, also in France, Amedee Bollee succeeded his father in charge of the steam carriage manufacturing company of the same name and began to build a series of vehicles of relatively high performance. Noteworthy also were the Mancelle shown at the 1878 exhibition and capable of 42 kph when carrying 16 people, and the ' Mary Ann', giant of the automobile world (100 hp engine, tare weight of 28 tons and carrying a load of 100). One example of Mary Ann covered a distance of 730 kilometres in 74 hours. The 'Nouvelle' followed — small six-seater bus which could be described as the steam-driven predecessor of the modern station-wagon. It weighed 3 tons and could travel at 45 kph. Then the 'Avant-Courrier', a 40-seater bus, achieved considerable success for its robustness and reliability. In 1881 it was the turn of the Rapide which could exceed 60 kph and of which, like its predecessors, a number were built.
At this point, however, even the famous Bollee factory had to recognise the progress made by the internal combustion engine. The change in production began in 1895, and a year later another Bollee son, Leon, built their first internal combustion engined vehicle, with at tubular chassis having three wheels: the forward pair steering, the single rear wheel being driven. It had an air-cooled internal combustion engine mounted horizontally on the left of t he rear wheel. This unusual vehicle, producing 3 hp at 750 rpm, made its first appearance in the Paris-Marseilles race, and in 1898 took the world 100 kilometre speed record at Etampes. Several examples still survive and are familiar to those who watch the annual London to Brighton veteran car run in Britain.
Commentaries
1. Etampes — г. Этамп, Франция.
2. London to Brighton veteran car run — традиционные ежегодные гонки старинных автомобилей (проходят с 1927 г.; к пробегу допускаются автомобили, изготовленные до 31 дек. 1904 г.).
Alternative Propulsion – Electricity
Around the 1880s another type of vehicle—that powered by electricity — was at the peak of its success, not only in Europe but also in America, a success which at the time had no indication of the rapidity with which it was to disappear from the scene, perhaps to reappear 90 years later.
One fact which immediately strikes the student of this period is the large number of names which appear — a fact which is understandable when one realises that the electric car presented far lower problems than d id those driven by steam or internal combustion engines. Its production was also much more suited to small workshops.
Furthermore, it is easy to understand how so many enthusiasts were seduced by the possibility of building such a vehicle. The DC motor was already developed to satisfactory points as was the lead-acid battery, although the latter was, and remains, heavy and bulky. Thus all the basic elements of the electric car were available, and their practical application permitted such vehicles, built in the years between 1881 and the end of the century, to give quite sensational results in terms of speed over short distance. Where the electric vehicle was woefully lacking was in its range, and it was this that caused its death around 1910 and remains its great disadvantage today.
In France, the first to build vehicles of this type on a fair scale was Icantaud, a coachbuilder who was gifted with notable ability. Among other things, fundamental theoretical studies on steering geometry are owed to him, studies still accepted today by motor engineers. By 1881, Jeantaud, benefiting from the previous development of the battery by the Frenchmen Faure and Plante, had taken part in the Paris-Bordeaux race, as did two other constructors, the Englishman, Park, and another Frenchman, Pouchain.
In the years between 1885 and 1890 there took place many experiments with electric vehicles and shortly afterwards, in 1897, machines of this type recorded some sensational results. In England the 'electric tandem' Gladiator-Pingault, covered the flying kilometre in 1 minute 46 seconds, and the 5 miles in 8 minutes 56 seconds. A few months later, on the Seine circuit, Edmond de Parrodil achieved a time of 57.8 seconds for the flying kilometre and the journalist Breyer, in the same year, did the 10 kilometres in 9 minutes 54 seconds, thus -exceeding 60 kph.
Europe 1896-1900
Early Problems
The police authorities, confronted with the first few thousand cars on the dusty roads of the Seine region, were the first to face problems that were soon to arise in other countries.
Even by 1893 the Prefect of Paris had established 7.5 mph as the speed limit within the city walls. Now arose other problems: what was to be the rule of the road, right or left? How was precedence at crossroads to be given? How to identify both vehicle and driver?
This last problem was resolved giving to each Department the serial numbers that it had been given in the regulations of the Ministry of Mines to which body was assigned the job of vehicle registration; this system is still in force today. Another problem was the position of the steering wheel which, at that time, was beginning to replace the tiller. Was it to be placed to the left or to the right—not a simple decision to take, so much so that it continued to be discussed for about 40 years. It was only much later, towards 1908, driving from the United States— where driving on the right was already definitively decided — that the majority of cars had their steering wheels on the left, though there remained many exceptions, as all old motorists will remember. Strangely enough, French quality cars used right-hand steering wheels until fairly recent times, although having the right-hand rule of the road.
In the meantime, the first motor advertisements had made headlines, with an ingenuity and hyperbole that today seems inconceivable.
So far as England is concerned, 1895 saw the founding of a small company manufacturing motor cars, Wolseley, which was to become, years later, one of the several makes of BMC. This event is noteworthy when one considers that the notorious Red Flag Act was still officially in force in Great Britain and was to remain so until the following year, requiring that every motor vehicle should be preceded by a walking man carrying a red flag, which certainly did not create ideal conditions for initiating an automobile factory. Although the law was rescinded in 1896, freedom remained considerably restricted because motorists were still subject to the onerous limit of 12 mph. In 1904, this was raised to 20 mph and remained in force until the end of the First War. In any event, the foundation of Wolseley was an act of courage and was a symptom of the motoring fever which had already infected the British and which stemmed from the other side of the channel.
Commentaries
1. ВМС— British Motor Corporation.
2. Red Flag Act —английский закон 1865 г., предписывающий, чтобы впереди любого средства передвижения шел человек с красным флагом и предупреждал об опасности. По этому закону максимальная скорость в городе была две мили в час, а за городом — четыре мили в час.
-1900-
We have thus brought the story of the motor car to the beginning of the 20th century.
It is now opportune to look at the motor car of 1900, whose manufacture was spreading rapidly on both sides of the Atlantic, in particular to see what level of technical progress the horseless carriage had achieved in the first 20 years of its life.
So far as the engine is concerned, the most usual layout was to use two cylinders. Several varieties were known at that time, differing often in these details which were necessary to get around competitors' patents. Thus there were inline twins, horizontally-opposed (or flat twins), and vee-twins. Many manufacturers, however, still used the single cylinder — De Dion, for example, was its strong supporter. Even in America, where minds were certainly not closed to technical progress, the single cylinder had its advocates, including Packard. The four-cylinder engine in 1900 was passing from the experimental into the production stage, associated mainly with such French engineers as Forest, designer of experimental multi-cylinder engine (including a six-in-line) or marine applications; Mors, the famous manufacturer of racing cars who built the first practical V4; and Tenting, an ex-driver for Peugeot, who built a large inline four.
Without exception all these had automatic inlet valves, only the achieved by burner, electrical systems being slow to be adopted. The magneto was brought alone at that time by the German, Robert Bosch, and Sims in England did much to ensure its adoption. At that time, also, the Frenchman, Claudel, invented the 'immersion carburettor', in which the jet was below the level of the petrol in the float chamber. Thus the two great aids to really practical and dependable spark-ignition petrol engine were developed together and helped progress greatly. The engine was already mounted forward in nearly every case, hidden by the front-mounted radiator. Even then there was a division in the ranks of manufacturers into those who supported, respectively, air-cooling and water-cooling — a division that still exists today. The steering wheel had already been adopted almost universally.
So far as coachwork is concerned, 1900 was a year of transition from the attitude of the earlier manufacturers, who tried to make the motor car look like the horse-drawn carriage, to that of the innovators, who began to design it from a more rational point of view. Thus around half the vehicles built had wheels of equal diameter, and their number was growing. Pneumatic tyres had almost completely replaced the solid type, though rims were still very similar to those of carts, with thick wooden spokes. Many light cars, however, had lightly-spoked wheels. Manufacturers had varying ideas about coachwork even though the number of types seemed to be diminishing. Some produced only the chassis and its mechanical components, and this practice was to spread until mass production and the all-steel body took over in most important car plants.
Starting the engine was already in many cases by means of a starting handle and this became virtually universal until the electric starting motor, with electric lighting, came along several years later.
Commentaries
1.Packard — «Паккард», название модели американского автомобиля высокого класса и одноименной американской фирмы, существовавшей до 1956 г. Джеймс Уорд Паккард (1863-1928) — основатель фирмы, свой первый автомобиль построил в 1896 г.
2. Peugeot - «Пежо», французская автомобильная монополия, основанная в 1896 году.
A Few Statistics
At this point it might be interesting to return to 1903 and consider world motor car production figures. Total production in that year was 61,927 units, of which 30,204 were made in France, 11,235 in the USA, 9,437 in Great Britain, 6,904 in Germany, followed by Belgium with 2,839, and Italy with 1,308.
Particularly in France, series production was beginning with 25,30, or 40 chassis on the line together. So far as the car itself was concerned, hot-tube ignition was giving way to the high-tension magneto. Single-cylinder engines were in decline, two cylinders were well established and four cylinders were making progress. Maximum rpm were rising, reaching 1,200 and even 1,500; noise was becoming less of a problem.
So far as coachwork was concerned, closed bodywork was still slow to be adopted. It must be remembered that at that time most motorist were enthusiasts, with no great consideration for weather protection Not many years were to pass, however, before the man-in-the-street was to exert his influence upon car design, creating a demand for coupes, limousines, saloons-cabriolets, etc. In those formative years however, the open 'torpedo' body, preferably a rakish one, was popular; and as progress was made the value of a low centre of gravity was appreciated, along with reasonable frontal area. Although progress was rapid, things were a long way from the motoring situation of today, when the prospective owner goes to showroom of show, makes his choice from a wide selection of cars, and takes delivery (usually) shortly afterwards. In the early years of the 20th century one had to buy a chassis and engage in weeks, or months, of discussion with the body- builders, still working in the spirit of the 'personal' vehicle of earlier times. Inevitably, many coachbuilders were craftsmen attracted to the motor car by its rapidly expanding production; and they tended to reproduce the styles they had known. Thus techniques properly adapted to the new vehicle were slow in evolving, though these early coachbuilders were able to produce work of a craftsmanship and finish that could not be matched today for commercial reasons.
Just the same, by 1903 we had vehicles with a look of the future in both engineering and coachwork. The Belgian Pipes, for instance, had overhead valves. The Maudslay in England had a magnetic clutch. Certain Fiats had compressed air starting — one of the first attempts at 'self starting'. The Dombret of Bordeaux had engine and gearbox in a common casing, and the ‘10 hp’ of Wilson and Pilcher had the first rudimentary automatic transmission.
Commentaries
1. The Belgian Pipes — автомобили бельгийской марки «Пайп».
2. Maudslay — «модсли», название автомобиля.
‘T’ In Motor Cars
The founding of the Ford Motor Company was to have an importance in the field of motor cars, not only from the point of view of mass production, but above all because it highlighted, right from its beginning, the philosophy of the car for the masses.
Along with these revolutionary ideas, Henry Ford, creator, animator, and commander of the company throughout, introduced a number of other novel concepts. In particular, he believed that not only the largest possible number of people should enjoy the products of his factory, but also that the largest number of people should share in the material benefits created by the production itself. But that is another story.
It is interesting to note that the same year of 1903 saw the birth of two companies — one in the Old World and one in the New—each representing a profoundly different technical, social, and economic evolution. On the one hand was the virtual creation of Rolls-Royce, which was to signify the standard of absolute perfection, and on the other the founding of Ford, which was to represent the opposite end of the scale — big-volume manufacture of products of low price and spartan character.
Disappointments and Debts
The Ford Motor Company was founded on 16th June of 1903 with a capital of $150,000. Henry Ford became Vice-President and also assumed the post of Chief Engineer and General Manager. Among the shareholders were the Dodge brothers, ex-mechanics, who had opened a workshop in Detroit after having for some years manufactured bicycles which used ball bearings of their own design.
John and Horace Dodge were manufacturing transmissions for Eli Olds factory when Ford offered them shares in his company. Despite the dissuasion of all their friends — who thought the new company was too much of a risk — the Dodges accepted Ford's offer — 10 per cent of the shares in return for providing the machine tools for the factory he was building and for beginning the production of Ford engines in their own workshop.
The beginning was not easy. There was strong competition from such established companies as Cadillac, Oldsmobile, Reo and Packard. Ford distinguished his models in a way which was unique in those days when other manufacturers were applying names intended to impress the public with the power of their engines or with some other characteristic that would appeal to the motorist's taste. He gave them single letters. This in itself was typical of his guiding philosophy in al things — simplicity. The first Ford cars, however, did not reflect his personality; there were too many fingers in the pie, particularly of ex-craftsmen, each of whom brought his own prejudies and preferences to bear. Model 'A' of 1904 and model' B' of 1905 fall into this category, though the latter had aesthetic merit. Model 'C was also produced in 1905, and showed some originality; it had two rear seats which could be fitted or removed at will, and suspension by full elliptical leaf springs, which was unusual at that time.
Several more two and four-cylinder models followed until, in 1906-1907 Ford produced the 'K' which was a foray into the luxury field. It was a six-cylinder machine and sold for $2,400, even though it cost much more than this to produce. It is evident that Ford was still hesitating, still not committing himself to the policy of mass manufacture. It should be said, however, that the 'K' — with its 7,040 cc engine, two speeds and reverse gearbox, had several virtues, including its appearance. It was distinctly comparable with the best English and French vehicles of the time.
Commentaries
1.(Ransom) Eli Olds — (Рэнсом) Эли Олдс (1864-1950), американский конструктор-бизнесмен, изготовил несколько трехколесных паровых повозок, наладил в Америке производство дешевых автомобилей «Олдсмобиль».
Low Price, Mass Market
Model ‘N’ was also produced in 1906 and represented Ford's first attempt to enter the mass market. Its price was as low as $600, which was the direct competition with the single-cylinder cars of other manufacturers (the ‘N’ was a four-cylinder). It was well accepted by the public but was not a commercial success. Ford had not yet introduced those productive techniques which were to allow him to reduce manufacturing costs so considerably, as he did with the later model ‘T’. The 'N' exhibited certain typical characteristics which later were to give the name 'spider' to the ‘T’— large wheels set well apart, small coachwork and a high ground clearance.
The 'R' and 'S' followed in 1907 and the beginning of 1908 and represented Ford's ranging on to his target of the ideal popular car he wished to produce. In general they were both similar to the 'N' and the same commercial policy of low price was followed with growing success. Certain technical details were improved, particularly those regarding front and rear suspension. At last we come to 1908, the year that introduced one of the most famous cars ever, the Ford model ‘T’, the 'Lizzie' for millions of Americans — the tin Lizzie, as it was called by rivals in its early days, until its great commercial success made such criticism ridiculous. Its official birthday was 1st October, 1908. That date represented the culmination of months and months of hard work by everyone in the organisation. This time the 'boss' had decided that not only would the new model be technically perfect but that it would be the product of a manufacturing and commercial organisation completely geared to mass production and volume sales.
Thus, before the birth of that historic vehicle (over 15,000,000 were made in all) there were frantic efforts to study new materials and rational works layout to reduce production times. Ford saw that he had the finest assembly lines possible, and did much to ensure the closest collaboration with suppliers and subcontractors. Ford's preferred policy was to buy them out in order to avoid unpleasant surprises from possible underhand manoeuvre by one of his competitors. There were many people in those days wanting to make war on Ford, because he represented a great challenge even at that early stage.
Another Giant
The second big American motor company, General Motors—for long the largest and most powerful commercial organisation in the world -was founded in 1908, the result of the patient, tenacious work of another outstanding individual, William Crapo Durant. He, like Ford, had begun in the early years of the 20th century but the aims and methods of the two men were quite different. Ford was in essence a technician, with clear, precise commercial ideas stemming from a real passion for the motor car. Durant was a business man who, like others of the time, had seen the future possibilities of the car and who had decided to reach the highest levels of the boom whose advent he foresaw so clearly.
In the early 1900s Billy Durant, grandson of a Governor of Michigan, was already a millionaire, having founded a successful handcart factory with his partner, Josiah Dallas Dart, an exdealer in trinkets. These two decided to convert their factory in Flint to motor car production, Durant being particularly keen to do so. Their problem was to find a fairly well-known make, preferably in financial difficulties, which their assistance could turn into a financial success. Buick fitted the bill.
David Dunbar Buick was an ex-tinsmith, also from Michigan, who, having amassed a substantial fortune from his patents on the application of enamel to cast iron, decided to build motor cars. His prototype for a light car created interest; it had a well-balanced engine, a pleasing appearance, and certain good technical details, notably pushrod-operated overhead valves. The financial aspects of the company, however, were not equally good. The Buick Manufacturing Company, in fact, became the Buick Motor Car Company after only one year, when it accepted a contribution of new capital from the Briscoe brothers. The association with the Briscoes did not last long. When they saw the way the company's finances were going they withdrew, and Buick, in spite of his ingenious ideas and the success of the few vehicles built, found himself on the brink of bankruptcy. It was in this way that Durant, in November, 1904, was able to get his hands on the Buick business. He immediately increased the company's capital from $75,000 to $300,000, and later to $500,000. He transferred the works to Flint, not to his own factory but to that of the Flint Wagon Works, another company with which he had recently become associated.
The impulse that Durant gave to the Buick business is shown by the production figures; they passed from 28 machines, in 1904, through 626 in 1905, to 2,300 in 1906.
Commentaries
1. William Crapo Durant —- Уильям Крапо Дюрант, основатель корпорации «Дженерал Моторз».
2. Flint — г. Флинт, штат Мичиган, США.
3. Buick — американская автомобильная фирма, основанная Дэвидом Бьюиком в 1903 г. и входящая в монополию «Дженерал Моторз».
Europe Takes Off
Germany
In Germany, without any doubt, the most interesting car was the 60 hp 9,200 cc four-cylinder Mercedes, which had won the fourth Gordon Bennett Cup in Ireland. This race was won by the sheer efficiency of the firm's hastily modified touring cars and this, deservedly, had favourable repercussions on sales.
Great Britain
In 1903 the first car to be built by John Siddeley appeared. At a much later date to be honoured by knighthood, and later to become Lord Kenilworth, he was an engineer whose original ideas were to have considerable influence on the European motor industry. He had started with the Wolseley Company in 1899, where Lord Austin also worked to great effect, and in 1903 the first of his designs was produced. This was a car with a vertical single cylinder, water-cooled engine having a three-speed gearbox and rear transmission by chains.
Later Siddeley founded his own company, which was to win international fame in the period from 1919 onwards for producing cars with two outstanding characteristics — high quality and competitive price. They were some of the first examples in Europe to exploit the use of light alloys. The big Siddeley Special of the pre-second war era was a notable example of this technique.
Standard
In 1903 another English firm, Standard, launched a 6 hp single-cylinder with an inclined steering column and cardan shaft transmission. It had a three-speed gearbox, drum brakes acting on the rear wheels, and suspension by semi-elliptical springs front and rear. Only a limited number of this type was built, but many more of a newer model were produced, starting in 1905. This was the 16/20 hp, followed in 1911 by a 15 hp — the celebrated model 'K' which was modified in 1916 and then provided with a 20/24 hp engine.
Austin
The Austin firm was founded in 1905. Herbert Austin was born in 1866 at Little Missenden in Buckinghamshire, and at 18 emigrated to Australia, where he worked in a foundry. He managed to get experience in several engineering jobs and also found time to continue his technical studies. Back in England, Austin built several prototype cars, largely with his own hands, a light tricycle in 1895 and the following year a light car; the latter were both exhibited at Crystal, Palace.
Austin began his own production of motor cars at the Longbridge works, Birmingham, in 1906, with the founding of the Austin Motor Company. His first car was a 25/30 hp four-cylinder; then followed a variety of types, so much so that by 1908 there were no fewer than 17, ranging in hp from 17 to 50. In 1909 he introduced a single-cylinder 7 hp —one of the first utility cars—and in 1922 the famous Austin Seven.
Commentaries
1. the Gordon Bennett Cup in Ireland — Кубок им. Гордона Беннетта в Ирландии.
2. the Wolseley Company — автомобильная компания «Уолсли».
3. Little Missenden in Buckinghamshire — г. Литл-Миссенден в графстве Бакингемшир (Великобритания).
4. Crystal Palace — Хрустальный дворец, сооружение из стекла и металла, спроектированное Джозефом Пакстоном для Всемирной выставки 1851 г. Дворец был возведен в Гайд-Парке в Лондоне; в 1936 г. сгорел.
The Edwardian Motor Car.
By 1915 the basic elements of all types of motor car had approached a form which was to provide a firm foundation for the cars of the two decades between the wars, 1919 to 1939.
Racing cars of the immediate pre-1914 war era were of between three and five litres capacity with overhead camshafts, relatively high crankshaft and piston speeds. They were reliable, fast, and—by 1915 — relatively safe. Front wheel brakes were becoming more common, shaft drive was almost universal, and high road speeds were achieved.
By 1915 the post-war 'sports car' was evolving unmistakably. The 1,317 cc Bugatti of 1911 had led the way with a light car of small cylinder capacity, good handling and brisk performance. It demonstrated in racing and in private owners' hands what could be achieved with a small car of advanced design.
Let us now look briefly at the ordinary motor car as it was in 1915. From Benz's rudimentary tricycle of 1885 tremendous developments had taken place in 30 years, most of them in the last 20. By 1915 a number of well-established manufacturers were producing sound, reliable—if somewhat unexciting—cars requiring no great mechanical expertise to maintain and being quite easy to drive. They were relatively sophisticated vehicles in which the occupants were protected from the weather, although side curtains for open tourers had not yet arrived. Closed bodywork was comfortable and becoming more popular, although the chauffeur was still frequently left exposed, as in coupe de ville bodies.
Engines were generally four-cylinder side-valve types with reasonable efficient carburation and high-tension magneto ignition.
Starting was generally by hand and lighting could be electricity, electric starting motors were 'extra', when offered. Gearboxes were reliable and many had four forward speeds. The gearbox was separate in most cars, and transmission was usually by shaft.
In coachwork design there were two opposing trends. As the motor car was still a pastime to many wealthy men, body design which tended to follow racing or pseudoracing lines was popular. This meant open cars with limited space — even aerodynamic lines such as the 'Skiff of Panhard-Levassor of 1911—and not much protection and little luggage space. On the other hand, the motor car was becoming a normal means of comfortable transport in town and between towns for an increasing number of people. The necessity for complete weather protection and ease of success, even with the 'vertical' fashions of the day — top hats for the men and high, sweeping headgear for the ladies-led to high, square, but eminently practical coachwork, of considerable nostalgic appeal today. The mass-produced steel body was still some years ahead.
Increasing traffic density and all-weather motoring had led to the adoption of better mudguards, while bumpers began to appear in America, where they have always been regarded as a parking aid. Tyres were still unsatisfactory, for two reasons: they punctured or burst too frequently and their average life was short, so that tyres constituted a high percentage of total running costs. (In 1914 average tyre life was frequently around 2,000 miles.) However, detachable rims and later detachable and interchangeable wheels were now common, making tyre troubles less unpleasant and time-consuming.
Suspensions were becoming more sophisticated and less empirically designed. By 1913 hydraulic shock absorbers were being manufactured on a fairly large scale and it was possible to travel in relative comfort on the roads of the time, apart from the dust menace. It is perhaps overlooked by many interested observers, however, that at that fairly satisfactory stage of progress, that indispensable piece of motor car equipment, the windscreen wiper, had not been adopted. Instead, an uncomfortable little sliding panel was often provided, which the driver opened in wet weather.
Thus the motor car had become a part of everyday life, both for the driver and for the spectator. It was still very expensive — at least in Europe — but it was accepted and had inserted itself into the economic life of the world.
Commentaries
1. Edwardian motor car — «Эдуардианский» автомобиль (выпуска 1906-18 гг.) по имени английского короля Эдуарда VII (его правление, 1901—10, характеризовалось отходом от строгой викторианской морали).
2. in coupe de ville bodies — кузова легкового автомобиля без жесткой крыши над отделением водителя.
Transport in Britain
The easy movement of goods and people is an essential feature of a modern industrialized country, such as the United Kingdom Agricultural and industrial products must be moved to markets and ports, just as raw materials and labour must be transported to the factories. Within Britain, these functions are carried out by a complex transport system that has developed slowly over several centuries.
Before the 17th century there was little need for rapid communication, because most local areas were relatively self-sufficient in raw materials for industry. But regional specialization and increased industrial output that resulted from the Industrial Revolution demanded more suitable means of transport than had existed previously Economic interchange between different parts of the country became essential to the development of the country, and new models of transport evolved to meet these needs: the railway and the canal.
Today, as in the recent past emphasis is placed not only upon ease of communications, but also on speed of communications. This has been achieved not only by the use of freight aircraft, but the development of high speed motorways.
In the Middle Ages, river transport played a major role in the British internal transport system, because all the large towns of the time were situated on navigable rivers. Moreover, the quality of roads was so bad that attention was turned to river navigation. This emphasis on water transport was increased during the great period of canal construction during the latter part of the 18th century. By 1830 there were about 10,000 kilometers of canals and «improved" rivers in Britain. However river navigation suffered from a number of problems including silting1 summer drought and the fact that a number of industrial areas, including Birmingham, were not on navigable rivers. The construction of the railways after 1830 meant the gradual decline of waterways, many canals were no longer used for commercial traffic, but for pleasure boating
Coastal shipping has also changed within the last century. Once it was the most important form of transport to move coal from North-East England to London, but now most coastal shipping is passenger-carrying. Links are maintained with many of the offshore islands, particularly in Scotland, by regular passenger ferries which may also carry freight.
The impetus for the development of railway communications came from the expanding coal trade of the early 19th century. Railways were speedier, in many respects more flexible and also were a more convenient means of transporting goods to and from the ports in foreign trade, or exporting ports. Most of the early railways were all built to link coalfields with expanding industrial areas. The first public railway, between Stockton and Darlington, was opened in 1825, in northern England.
As industrialization continued the canals were found inadequate to cope with the volume of traffic and railways were built to cope with the problem. Gradually railways took the place of the canals, and towns grew up and developed at railway junctions and along the main lines. Railways were becoming efficient carriers of passengers, either those travelling on business or on holiday. By the middle of the 19th century through rail links had been established between the major cities and towns of Britain - London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, York, Leeds, Newcastle, Brighton, Southampton, Exeter, Bristol.
During the 19th century and the early years of the 20th century the railways were the principal carriers of both freight and passengers. But the invention of the internal combustion engine introduced a rival means of transport - an automobile.
As roads were improved, and motor vehicles became faster, more reliable and more numerous, with the advantage of door-to-door delivery, many railway lines lost traffic and became uneconomic to run. On the longer internal routes, the railways lost passengers to civil airlines. All through the present century they have faced increasing competition from road transport. This has resulted in a decline in the importance of the railways and the closure of many lines and stations..
The pattern of roads in Britain still bears traces of the Roman road network, although the modern network is really a product of the last two centuries. This road system was quite unplanned. Built, in the first place, to link settlements, such roads formed long distance links, which were not the most direct or the most efficient. The real importance of the road system did not emerge until the early 20th century, when the invention of the motor-car created a revolution in industrial transport.
Modern methods of evaluating road requirements for the future have been developed by government planners and a system of motorways linking many parts of Britain was begun in the late 1950s. The development of the fast roads together with the increasing use of large container lorries has meant a rapid rise in road freight transport.
However, many of Britain's roads are not suited to cope with the current volume of traffic. Most of them were designed to handle horse-drawn traffic and are inadequate for modern motor vehicles, especially modern lorries. The increased motor traffic has tended to produce congestion, particularly in towns and cities where several roads may converge, and where congestion has become a daily nightmare for drivers, pedestrians and inhabitants alike.
The majority of Britain's ports are situated in the mouths, wide estuaries of rivers. Of great importance for the port activity are tides, when the rising water reaches its maximum mark (high tide). For example, in the port of London during the high tide the water rises to the level of 6 m, in Liverpool - 8.5m, in Bristol - 30m. Due to the high tides many towns which are situated dozens of kilometres from the coast have become sea ports (London - 64km from the coast, Glasgow - 35, Hull -32, etc.). The introduction of container traffic has led to an enormous reduction in the amount of time spent loading and unloading ships.
Although the largest British ports serve a variety of purposes, many ports concentrate on one particular activity.
The largest ports handling ocean freight trade are London, Liverpool, Hull, Southampton, 1 Glasgow, Bristol.
The principal ocean-passenger ports are Southampton, London (Tilbury) and Liverpool.
The principal ferry-passenger ports for communications with Europe are Harwich, Dover, Folkestone, Newhaven and Southampton.
The most important fishing ports are Hull, Grimsby, Lowestoft, Fleetwood and Aberdeen.
Specialized naval ports include Portsmouth and Plymouth.
The development of the North Sea oil has given rise to new ports, or oil ports, through which the main traffic of this product passes. Tees, Forth ports, Flotta in Orkney and Sullom Voe in Shetland.
The most striking development in the field of transport in recent years has been the growth of air traffic. It handles both freight and passengers to whom speed is more important than cost^ The number of people who travel by air has increased at a very fast rate. Practically all major cities and towns of Britain are served by regular daily flights.
London is served by two chief airports - Heathrow and Gatwick. Heathrow airport handles about seventy-five per cent of all passenger traffic and sixty-five per cent of all freight passing through British airports. It is one of the largest and busiest airports in the world for international travel. It covers an area of more than twenty square kilometres.
Of all airlines operating in the United Kingdom, British Airways is one of the world's leading airlines, and in terms of the passengers carried it is the largest in the world.
Finding a Fault in the Car
Servicing your car regularly you prevent it from becoming unreliable. Of course, you can't foresee everything. Having failed to start the car in the morning you had better check three things first: the battery, the fuel level and the spark plugs. It is quite easy to repair these faults.
If the battery appears to be flat it is necessary to recharge it. If this doesn't work, you should replace it.
An empty tank is another common fault in the car. Having noticed a fuel warning light on the instrument panel of your ear you should fill up the tank with more petrol.
Dirty spark plugs are also certain to cause a problem. To drive the car it is important to clean them regularly and adjust the gap in the spark plugs to the proper width. If the gap is not correct the engine will not run well.
If your car still does not start, the petrol pump may be broken, or the fuel pipe may be blocked. Having discovered a broken pump, it is a good idea to repair or replace it. If the fuel pipe is blocked, take it off and unblock it.
Having heard a loud CLICK I when you turn the key, you are sure to realize that the starter motor may be jammed. If it is. you can try to release it pushing the car forwards and backwards (in the 2nd gear). If the car still doesn't start, the starter motor should be repaired or even replaced.
And don't forget about the air filter. Its function is to remove particles of dirt, dust and other Impurities from the air passing to the carburettor. A blocked (liter decreases the airflow to the carburettor thus increasing the amount of fuel in the mixture. This causes the engine to operate inefficiently. Cleaning and changing filters regularly you prevent a considerable damage that is certain to be caused inside the cylinders. In this case the engine will need a thorough overhaul.
If you are a poor mechanic, stopping at service stations periodically you will save at least time and money. As they say, 'prevention is better than cure.
Car Giants' Single Online Supply Store
General Motors, Ford Motors and Daimler Chrysler companies have announced plans to open the online auto marketplace, potentially making it the largest Internet business yet created. It will allow suppliers and buyers to automate routine transactions and streamline1 the bidding process for everything from car windows and fuel-injection parts to paper clips and paint through electronic sales, auctions; and "reverse auctions" in which buyers state their needs and receive bids from sellers.
Consumers are not likely to see massive price cuts because of the new system. But it should help automakers keep a lid on retail prices as new features are introduced, such as electronic steering, computerized transmission systems and weight-sensitive air bags. It will also make it possible for customers to order more personalized vehicles and to take delivery of them faster.
General Motors, Ford and Daimler Chrysler will have an equal share of the new company, which is expected to be running by the end of June. They will also open their virtual marketplace to other automakers and could eventually expand the service into other industries, such as aerospace, construction and office supplies.
The joint marketplace is the most powerful sign of the migration of commerce from the old world of salesmen and brick stores to the new virtual world of electronic commerce (e-commerce). It is going to change the way businesses interact with each other by taking out the huge inefficiencies that have been built around the old methods of using the phone and mail.
By using the speed of Internet communications and the power of large computerized databases to handle global sales and purchasing, the companies hope to control costs, slash production inefficiencies , and reduce the logistical nightmare of tracking million of parts.
"The Internet is transforming every piece of our company and our industry," Ford president said in a statement.
In one of the first purchases made by Ford on its own online marketplace the company was reported to save more than $10 million.
There will ultimately be more than 100,000 supply companies on the system. The company could become a profit maker since it will collect a fee or commission for every transaction that takes place over the network.
Car of Future
Ever since Nicolas Cugnot, a Frenchman, invented the first self-propelled road vehicle in 1770 there has been no shortage of companies willing to make a better automobile. Over years their efforts have given users the gasoline engine (дизель), the electric starter tubeless tires (бескамерная шина), fuel-injected engines and anti-lock brake's (тормоз с антиблокировочным устройством), these are only a few innovations. What is next? Here are some examples of what, the car designers are working at in the world today.
Engineers are experimenting with a state-of-art (новейший) system that enables drivers to see better after dark. This "night vision" system uses infrared sensors that can detect a human figure at night more than 1,600 feet away. That's five times the distance at which conventional headlights are effective. The sensors pick up infrared rays emitted by any object that gives off heat. An image-processing system scans the information from the sensors, creating different images for different objects. The images are then displayed on a cathode ray screen built-in a car's instrument pane. It is like black-and-white photograph of an object ahead. And the system is passive, which means no lights are needed to illuminate the object in front of the vehicle. But the biggest problem will be reducing costs and the other one is the size of the sensor mechanism which is too big now.
One of the latest applications of sophisticated electronics is the wheel-computerized system that not only monitors air pressure in automobile tires but adjusts it automatically. This system in addition enables a driver to set tire pressure while seated. The system developed consists of three separate modules. The first is the instrument panel display which houses the system's main microprocessor, programming buttons (кнопка включения программы) and warning signals. The second component is the detector drive module (модуль привода) which is essentially four microchips attached, in one unit, to the chassis. Each chip detecting pressure changes that may occur, the transistors within the module signal the third component - a programmable transducer (программируемый преобразователь).
The transducer attached to each wheel changes the tire pressure accordingly. However, some automobile experts think this system is too complicated and costly. The design has to be simple and of low cost.
Talking Instrument Panels
For a few years now some of the most' advanced new automobiles have been equipped with instrument panels that can "speak” providing instrument readings or safety warnings from special electronic circuits.
In a polite female voice, the device will report on engine oil pressure, parking-brake, and headlight operation, seat belt connection, totaling, 14 different functions. The driver can even program the Voice Warning System-to announce the time or to give a low-fuel warning for any preset gas tank level.
The heart of the Voice Warning System is a microprocessor-based electronic speech module made by National Semiconductor Corporation (US). The device requires the connection of 18 wires, but it is simple enough to install in a car.
Transport for Tomorrow
One thing is certain about the public transport of the future- it must be more efficient than it is today. The time is coming when it win be quicker to fly across the Atlantic to New York than to travel from home to office. The two main problems are: what vehicle shall we use and how can we plan our use of it?
There is already a number of modern vehicles which are not yet in common use, but which may become a usual means of transport in the future. One of these is the small electric car: we go out into, the street, find an empty car, get into it, drive to our destination get out and leave the car for the next person who comes along In fact there may be no need to drive these cars. With an automatic guidance system for cars, being developed, it will be possible for us to select our destination just as today we select a telephone number, and our car will move automatically to the address we want.
For long journeys in private ears one can also use art automatic guidance system. Arriving at the motorway, a driver will select the lane1 he wishes to use, Switch over to automatic driving, and then relax - dream, read the newspaper, have a meal, flirt with his passenger-while the car does the work for him. Unbelievable? It is already possible. Just as in many ships and aircraft today we are piloted automatically for the greater part of the journey, so in the future we can also have this luxury in our own cars.
A decade ago, the only thing electronic on most automobiles was the radio. But at present sophisticated electronics is playing a big part in Current automotive research. For example, in every gasoline-powered2 car that General Motors Corporation makes there is a small computer continuously monitoring the exhaust. The device, about the size of a pack of cigarettes, adjusts the vehicle carburetor fuel intake3 to get the best fuel economy. Ford cars are equipped with an electronic instrument panel that, among other things4, will calculate how far one can drive on the fuel left in the tank. It also will estimate the time of arrival at destination and tell the driver what speed he has averaged5 since turning on the ignition.
According to specialists these features' made possible by microelectronics are only the beginning. Radar may control the brakes to avoid collisions, and a display screen may show, the car's position on the road. Recently a radar to be mounted on lorries and cars, has been designed in the USA. The radar aerial looks like a third headlight placed directly above the bumper. Having summed up the-information about the speed and distance of various objects ahead, the computer detects all possible dangers and their nature. A third component in the system is a monitor on the instrument panel. The radar only observes objects ahead of the vehicle. It is automatically turned on when the speed exceeds ten miles an hour. The green light on the panel indicates that the system is on. The yellow light warns of stationary objects ahead, or something moving slower than the car. The red light and buzzer warn that the speed should go down. Another red light and sound signal make the driver apply, the brakes,
A Japanese company is designing a car of a new-generation which will start running on the roads in the 90s. When completed, the new model will have a lot of unusual characteristics. The car's four-wheel control system will ensure movement diagonally arid even sideways, like a crab, at right angles to the longitudinal axis. This is especially important when leaving the car in parking places. To help the driver get information while concentrating on the road the most important data will be projected on the wind screen. A tourist traveling in such a car will not lose his way even in Sahara, with its impassible roads: a navigation Earth satellite will indicate the route.
A new ceramic engine has been developed in Japan. Many important parts as pistons, pressure rings6, valves and some others have been made of various ceramic materials, piston rings7 made of silicon materials being in many respects better than those of steel. They withstand .temperatures up to 1,000 °C. Therefore, the engine does not need a cooling system.
Notes to the Text
1. ane – ряд
2. gasoline – powered – с бензиновым двигателем
3. fuel intake – впрыск топлива
4. among other things – кроме всего прочего
5. what speed he has averaged – какова была его средняя скорость
6. pressure ring – уплотнительное кольцо
7. piston ring – поршневое кольцо
Solar-powered Cars
One of the ways we can reduce the amount of pollution from traffic seems to power our vehicles using I renewable resources. To demonstrate I this, the World Solar Challenge Car | Race from Darwin to Adelaide annually involves dozens of cars that are powered only by the energy of the Sun. The cars are reported to use photovoltaic (PV) cells to convert sunlight into electricity. A single PV cell is known to produce only a small amount of electrical power (approximately 0.5 volts). To increase the power, lots of PV cells are connected together to make a 'solar panel'. Panels can be linked to form a large solar array that is certain to produce enough electricity to power a car.
When the World Solar Challenge teams design their electrical systems they have to take into account variations in the intensity of sunlight. The Sun's energy is supposed to power the car's motor and also charge a battery for use at night or at times when the Sun U hidden by a cloud. If в car is designed to put all its energy toward driving and keeps nothing in reserve, it is sure to atop completely in cloudy weather. If too much energy is diverted to the battery, the engine is found to run too slowly.
Engineers still have many questions and problems to tackle before solar power becomes an efficient and economical way to fuel vehicles. Today's solar-powered cars яге rather expensive but qs the pressure on fossil fuel resources is certain to increase scientists will continue to search for alternative energy sources, including harnessing the Sun's energy to drive vehicles. The most fascinating part of using solar power as an energy source is that it is considered to be pollution-free and inexhaustible. If research continues, stopping for petrol is likely to become a thing of the past.
Flexible Logistics Systems
Several organisations are expanding beyond their national borders as a strategy to improve competitiveness and their ability to offer diverse products to an expanded market. Many companies have become very proficient at supplying products throughout the world. The task requires not only the ability to recognize opportunities, but also an information system to coordinate the supply of goods and materials to places where they are needed throughout the world.
Logistics is supply, distribution and replacement of materials, goods and personnel. It is a problem for all organisations, both public and private. For instance, there were tremendous logistics challenges of moving the US military - army, navy, and air force - to carry out the military operations called "Desert Storm", problems which were even more complex when other nations belonging to the United Nations assisted with the operations. Large logistical problems are faced by relief agencies which are trying to give public assistance to people during emergencies.
In a small warehouse, improvements can be obtained from better information systems, productivity improvements, inventory (инвентаризация) savings, reductions in returns (возврат, оборот, прибыль), space saving (10-30 per cent), and extra customer service profit. That is, for a warehouse of 80.000 sq. ft. 50 staff, and $100 million sales per annum, and inventory of $40 million, it is possible to save over $2 million per annum from improved methods. The costs of such improvements can be retrieved after just three months.
The logistics aspects of the distribution chain (цепочка) in any organisation relate to the use of information to manage more effectively the functions of transportation, storage, warehousing, and freight forwarding (пересылка груза). The information system has to co-ordinate a distribution network which consists of transportation services between suppliers to factories, factories to storage facilities, ports and warehouses, storage services in the warehouses, transportation services between the warehouses and buyers and linkages between countries. As a result of implementing an efficient information system and computer network, McDonald's restaurants are able to receive food products from various suppliers, repackage them to meet McDonald's specifications, and then deliver them to their restaurants throughout the world, and still maintain consistent (соответствующие) standards.
Some companies perform logistics services themselves, but many are contracting these services to specialists who have information systems to offer a package of services - from simple storage and warehousing to a total package or complete service which might include consolidation (объединение) of cargo, transportation, storage and inventory management. Companies within the logistics sector distinguish themselves by the totality of the services they offer. Generally, smaller firms may have less sophisticated information systems and may only provide services such as warehousing and transportation. Large firms have the resources and economies of larger scale to develop more sophisticated information and computer systems. However, developing a sophisticated and centralized information and mechanized warehouse may not necessary lead to a success.
Certain larger companies choose to rely on more flexible systems, which allow for learning and adaptation.
Finding Opportunity in the Global Economy
According to Bill Gates, today if you had to guess, (угадать) somebody's approximate income (i.e., money you receive) and you were limited to asking one polite question, a good one would be: "What country do you live in?" That is because of the huge difference in average wages (weekly payment for work) from country to country. But a generation from now, if you want to guess someone's income, a more-telling single question might be: "What's your education?" "This, at least, is my belief, B. Gates says. Future business, opportunity will depend on educational opportunity — for everyone.
Compared to almost anything else in a developed society, the cost of investment in education is low — and the returns are high. Even the poorest of countries can develop better schools. Education is essential because electronic networks and software-driven technologies are beginning to break down the economic barriers between nations. The Internet and the availability of inexpensive, powerful computers are helping spread opportunity to developing nations.
International communication, which is certain to become extraordinary1 cheap m all its forms, will bring suitably educated people from every economic region into the mainstream of the world economy. Well-educated, enterprising individuals with access in information technology will do well rio matter where they-live.
Nearly a billion people in rural China may find their lives little changed for decades, but tens of millions of the best-educated Chinese could earn more or less what similarly educated people in the United States or Germany do.
As technology breaks down the barriers of distance and national borders, it will be even more important that everybody be given equal educational opportunities. Eventually, being "poor" won't be much a matter of living in a poor country as it will be a matter of having poor skills.
Assuming you want to develop those skills, what should you study? There are a lot of opportunities in the knowledge-based global economy, and I am particularly enthusiastic about the business I know best — software.
Because software is an almost pure expression of logic, the industry is a great field for almost anyone today. Just about every technical and scientific discipline will apply. The business side is equally exciting and challenging2 because the industry is so dynamic. And software jobs are among the highest-paid. It is not a win-lose industry, either. More software development in one region does not mean reduced software development in another. Rather, software development as a whole helps to grow the world economy.
The value and importance of the software industry — and its employees — will continue to grow indefinitely. Software is transforming the workplace in industry after industry, increasing productivity and helping globalize the world economy.
Importing and Exporting: Methods of Payment
The most popular methods of payment are in international trade are:
Open account
Documents against acceptance
Documents against payment
Letter of Credit – документальный аккредитив
Prepayment
For exporters, prepayment seems to be the roost preferable method of payment, for in this situation his risk is minimal. For importers, the situation is just the opposite. Since the interests of the parties are contradictory, methods of payments are usually the results of rather long and difficult negotiations.
An open account implies that the exporter sends goods to the buyer and after doing that or at the end of a certain period agreed upon in a supply contract, sends the buyer an invoice. This method of payment is cheap, but it's rather risky for the exporter who hasn't got any protection, but the importer's promise, honesty and reputation. This method of payment is preferable when a transaction is performed between affiliated companies, since such companies do not have any grounds to doubt each other’s reliability.
Small exporters are often asked to conclude an open account transaction. If asked for that, they should decide very, carefully whether their partner is creditworthy.
Documents against acceptance
Documents against payment
In both these payments documentary drafts are used. These methods of payment are known to be rather risky for the exporters. They imply that the exporter agrees to sell his goods and to ship them without getting money first. His bank prepares a draft and sends it to the importer's bank. The importer's bank informs the importer that such, document has been received. Under ideal circumstances, an honest importer signs the draft and returns it to his bank. The bank withdraws the money from the importer's account and transfers it to the exporter's bank account in the exporter's bank.
The first time you see the draft sent to you by your bank is called first presentation. When you sign the draft you also write the word "accepted". This action is blown as 'acceptance of the draft'. If you are presented a 'sight draft', that means that you have to pay as soon as you see it. If you are presented a 'time draft’ that means that you can pay without, a certain period of time (up to 180 days) after the sight or after the date of the draft.
To protect themselves, some, exporters try to arrange things in such a way that the importer can not get hold of the shipped goods until he accepts the draft. The exporter places his goods on a ship (or on a plane) and the ship's captain or his mate gives the exporter a document called 'a bill of lading' (an 'airway bill', if the goods are transported, by plane). Without this document the buyer can not claim the merchandize.
In case of a sight draft, both the exporter and the importer bear the risk. The buyer might refuse to pay or to accept the draft and refuse to claim the goods. He might have changed his mind, lost his business or might have received a better offer from a competitive company. The buyer is also in a vulnerable position because he has already paid the money but the merchandize he receives might not be the one he has ordered. The time draft lessens his risks.
Letter of Credit (commercial documentary letter of credit) is widely used in international trade. 'Commercial' here means that it is used in a business deal and 'documentary' means that it is payable upon presentation of specified documents. The abbreviation LC stands for 'Letter of Credit'. If this term of payment is agreed upon, the importer applies for LC from his bank. He fills out a form indicating the type of credit (revocable/irrevocable), the beneficiary, the amount, the documents involved (bill of lading, invoice, insurance, etc.), a brief description of the goods covered by the credit. The money will be credited to the exporter's account as soon as confirmation of shipment is made. In the end the importer's bank sends the documents the importer, so that the importer can claim the goods.
Shipping Terms
Whether you are buying or selling you have to consider the terms in accordance with which the transaction will be made. All shipping terms are defined in a special book known as the INCOTERMS (International Commercial Terms). All in all, there are 14 different ways of arranging the shipment of goods. Since in international trade the interests of the buyer and the seller are conflicting both parties will prefer different ways of delivery of their merchandise.
We'll not be discussing all 14 terms, but highlight the most popular ones.
For the seller the transaction under Ex Works term is the most attractive one. In such case, the only thing he has to do is to put the goods, on a prearranged place outside the factory and the buyer will have to arrange transportation and to bear all the expenses connected with the transportation process, insurance and customs clearance.
For the buyer the transaction under Delivered Duty Paid term is preferable. He does not have to worry, about anything, because the seller will pay all the costs connected with the delivery of goods to the importer.
It's only natural that these shipping terms are not particularly popular in international trade, because they put one of the parties in a vulnerable position. International trade is a two-way process, and a deal is a result of a sensible compromise. That's why FOB, FAS, C&F, CIF terms seem to be the most popular ones.
The initials FOB stand for Free oh Board. This term is a little bit confusing, because 'on Board' does not necessarily mean 'on board the ship'. 'On Board' may imply any means of transportation, namely plane, lorry, train.
So, if you really want to have your goods delivered 'On Board the Ship', you must specify FOB Vessel, Port of London, In general, the term FOB implies that the buyer becomes the owner of the goods the moment they have been placed over the ship's rail. The exporter has to deliver the goods as indicated above, to notify the other party, to get an export licence, if necessary; Customs formalities in his country are also the exporter's responsibilities.
The initials FAS stand for Free Alongside Ship. Under this term, the seller is responsible for the goods until the moment they are delivered to a port, where they will be loaded on a vessbl. Since that moment, the control over the goods passes on to the buyer and the latter will have to pay export taxes and loading charges, if any.
The initials C&F stand for Cost and Freight. Under this term the seller pays the ocean freighycosts, but does not pay for the insurance. If a deal is concluded on C&F terms, the buyer usually tries to minimize the risks involved in the transportation by buying insurance.
The initials CIF stand for Cost, Isurance, Freight. Under this term, the importer buys the goods, the freight and insurance from the exporter who arranges everything.
All these shipping terms have some advantages and disadvantages. CIF seems to be very popular even among exporters with a long record of international trade.
Ten Attributes of a Good Employee
Here are 10 of the qualities Bill Gates finds in the "best and brightest" employees the companies should attract and retain.
First, it is important to have a fundamental curiosity1 about the product of your company or group. You have to use the product yourself.
Second, you need a genuine (настоящий, подлинный) interest in discussion with customers about how they use your product, what they like or don't like in order to know where your company's product could be better.
Third, once you understand your customer's needs, you have to enjoy thinking through how, this product can make work more interesting.
These first three points are related. Success comes from understanding and caring deeply about your products, your technology and your customers' needs.
Fourth, you as an individual employee should develop your own skills and those of the people you work with. If maximizing your next bonus or salary increase is all that motivates you, you are likely to lose an opportunity to benefit from teamwork3 that creates success in the long term.
Fifth, you need to have specialized knowledge or skills while maintaining a broad perspective. Big companies, in particular, need employees who can learn specialties4 quickly, so a willingness to learn is critical.
Sixth, you have to be flexible enough to take advantage of opportunities that can give you perspective. At Microsoft Co., we try to offer a person lots of different jobs in the course of a career. Anyone interested in joining management is encouraged (поощрять) to work in different customer units, even if it means moving within the organization or relocating to a different part of the world. We have many employees working for our US subsidiaries in other countries. This helps us better understand world markets.
Seventh, a good employee will want to learn the economics of the business. Why does the company do what it does? What are its business models? How does it make money? And a company, in turn, should educate its employees in the fundamental financial realities of its industry.
Eighth, you must focus on competitors, i.e., you must think about what is going on in the marketplace. What are your company's competitors doing that is smart5? What can we learn from them? How can we avoid their mistakes?
Ninth, you've got to use your head. Analyze problems to understand the implications (скрытый смысл, последствия) of potential tradeoffs of all kinds, including the tradeoff between acting sooner with less information and later with more. Use your head in practical ways. Prioritize your time effectively.
Finally, don't fail to see the obvious essentials, such as being honest, ethical7 and hard working. These attributes are critical and go without saying.
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БЕЛАРУСЬ
УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ
«БЕЛОРУССКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ТРАНСПОРТА»
Кафедра иностранных языков
Т.С. ЯРОШ, И.Н.КОМИССАРУК
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК