Supplementary Texts
Before Ford
In 1879, three years after the Philadelphia Centennial, George Selden registered a historic patent for a 'horseless carriage' driven by an internal combustion engine. This patent was to influence the development of the American motor industry for years, to the point where Henry Ford had attempted to break this monopoly.
The patent did not, however, have any immediate effect on development. Although Selden sensed the tremendous potential of the internal combustion engine and the motor car, he was not particularly interested in their commercial production. Nevertheless, after a few years a number of studies and actual construction began to appear—without any direct connection with the European industry which remained relatively advanced and of purely transatlantic origin. Among these was that of Elwood Haynes who, after having exhibited his engine at Philadelphia, built his first vehicle in 1888 with a petrol engine which, like that in the show, had a carburettor which vaporised petrol through a wick. In the same year there were public demonstrations in New York and in Elizabeth, New Jersey, of a petrol-driven tram.
Internal combustion-engined vehicles were also built in the same period by E.J. Pennington, FA. Huntington, and WT. Harris, that of Pennington being worthy of particular mention for having covered a mile in 58 seconds. The exceptional power of this engine was largely due to a system of double ignition which led, however, to considerable difficulties with overheating.
None of these prototypes led to commercial production, nor did that of Henry Nadig, a mechanic of German origin who, with his two sons, built a rudimentary vehicle in Pennsylvania, powered by a petrol engine inspired by Daimler's.
A similar vehicle was built by another mechanic of German origin, Gottfried Schloemer, who appeared in the streets in 1890 with a machine which reached the then respectable speed of 12 mph.
The list of American pioneers of this period includes Charles H. Black, who built an internal combustion-engined tricycle in 1891, and J.I. Case, who founded a factory for commercial tractors in 1892. lb these should be added the name of Charles B. King, who was the first to introduce the embryonic industry to Detroit — future world capital of the motorcar. However, the most interesting vehicle of this period was the famous four-wheeler built at Springfield in 1893 by two brothers, Charles and Frank Duryea2. It was powered by a single cylinder internal combustion engine with electrical ignition and spray carburation, the first in the USA, both designed by Frank Duryea. One year later the Duryeas, who like so many other pioneers had progressed
to the motor car by way of the bicycle, produced a second model which, among other things, won the first American motor race—the Chicago-Evanston—at a speed of some S3 mph in contrast with the first vehicle, a two-stroke, this one had a four-stroke engine.
In the same period the Duryeas formed the first American motor company — the Duryea Wagon Company; but at the same time there arose fundamental differences between them. Frank left the company, which went into liquidation after having produced only 12 cars.
One other item of interest associated with the name of Duryea is the bitter controversy which was to arise in 1912 between Charles Duryea and Elwood Haynes, after the Smithsonian Institution had solemnly attributed to the latter the credit of being the first pioneer of the motorcar in America. In fact, the award was made in 1906, but it was only in 1912, when Haynes began to boast of it, that Duryea attacked. In the light of the evidence he presented, the Smithsonian had to recognise Duryea's claim.
It is worthy of note that one year after the Duryea Company was formed Henry Ford made his first appearance in motor car history, driving his experimental 4 hp cycle-car. This, however, is the beginning of a story which will be told later.
Commentaries
1. George Selden — Джордж Селден (1846-1932), американский изобретатель и юрист, запатентовавший в 1879 году устройство автомобиля и построивший его по своему проекту в 1910 году
(«повозка Селдена»). Под маркой «Селден» в США выпускались грузовые автомобили (1906-14).
2. Charles and Frank Duryea - Чарльз (1861-1938) и Франк (1969-1967) Дурие, основатели первой в Америке компании (The Duryea Motor Wagon Co.) по производству автомобилей с двигателями внутреннего сгорания.
Alternative Propulsion - Steam
It must not be assumed that vehicles powered by engines other than Internal combustion had disappeared as a result of these world developments. In parallel with the growth of internal combustion on both sides of the Atlantic runs the story of the development of vehicles powered by steam and by electricity.
As fas as steam propulsion is concerned, an Italian engineer, Enrico, designed a steam lorry in 1883, though it is doubtful if this was ever built. In 1888, however, Leon Serpollet, a French engineer from Culoz, built a revolutionary 'flash' boiler producing instantaneous steam. Two years later he made a memorable journey from Paris to Lyons in 10 days using a tricycle so equipped. (A Serpollet 'steamer' was to achieve a speed of 120,771 kph — around 75 mph — in 1902, establishing a world land speed record.)
In the meantime, also in France, Amedee Bollee succeeded his father in charge of the steam carriage manufacturing company of the same name and began to build a series of vehicles of relatively high performance. Noteworthy also were the Mancelle shown at the 1878 exhibition and capable of 42 kph when carrying 16 people, and the ' Mary Ann', giant of the automobile world (100 hp engine, tare weight of 28 tons and carrying a load of 100). One example of Mary Ann covered a distance of 730 kilometres in 74 hours. The 'Nouvelle' followed — small six-seater bus which could be described as the steam-driven predecessor of the modern station-wagon. It weighed 3 tons and could travel at 45 kph. Then the 'Avant-Courrier', a 40-seater bus, achieved considerable success for its robustness and reliability. In 1881 it was the turn of the Rapide which could exceed 60 kph and of which, like its predecessors, a number were built.
At this point, however, even the famous Bollee factory had to recognise the progress made by the internal combustion engine. The change in production began in 1895, and a year later another Bollee son, Leon, built their first internal combustion engined vehicle, with at tubular chassis having three wheels: the forward pair steering, the single rear wheel being driven. It had an air-cooled internal combustion engine mounted horizontally on the left of t he rear wheel. This unusual vehicle, producing 3 hp at 750 rpm, made its first appearance in the Paris-Marseilles race, and in 1898 took the world 100 kilometre speed record at Etampes. Several examples still survive and are familiar to those who watch the annual London to Brighton veteran car run in Britain.
Commentaries
1. Etampes — г. Этамп, Франция.
2. London to Brighton veteran car run — традиционные ежегодные гонки старинных автомобилей (проходят с 1927 г.; к пробегу допускаются автомобили, изготовленные до 31 дек. 1904 г.).
Alternative Propulsion – Electricity
Around the 1880s another type of vehicle—that powered by electricity — was at the peak of its success, not only in Europe but also in America, a success which at the time had no indication of the rapidity with which it was to disappear from the scene, perhaps to reappear 90 years later.
One fact which immediately strikes the student of this period is the large number of names which appear — a fact which is understandable when one realises that the electric car presented far lower problems than d id those driven by steam or internal combustion engines. Its production was also much more suited to small workshops.
Furthermore, it is easy to understand how so many enthusiasts were seduced by the possibility of building such a vehicle. The DC motor was already developed to satisfactory points as was the lead-acid battery, although the latter was, and remains, heavy and bulky. Thus all the basic elements of the electric car were available, and their practical application permitted such vehicles, built in the years between 1881 and the end of the century, to give quite sensational results in terms of speed over short distance. Where the electric vehicle was woefully lacking was in its range, and it was this that caused its death around 1910 and remains its great disadvantage today.
In France, the first to build vehicles of this type on a fair scale was Icantaud, a coachbuilder who was gifted with notable ability. Among other things, fundamental theoretical studies on steering geometry are owed to him, studies still accepted today by motor engineers. By 1881, Jeantaud, benefiting from the previous development of the battery by the Frenchmen Faure and Plante, had taken part in the Paris-Bordeaux race, as did two other constructors, the Englishman, Park, and another Frenchman, Pouchain.
In the years between 1885 and 1890 there took place many experiments with electric vehicles and shortly afterwards, in 1897, machines of this type recorded some sensational results. In England the 'electric tandem' Gladiator-Pingault, covered the flying kilometre in 1 minute 46 seconds, and the 5 miles in 8 minutes 56 seconds. A few months later, on the Seine circuit, Edmond de Parrodil achieved a time of 57.8 seconds for the flying kilometre and the journalist Breyer, in the same year, did the 10 kilometres in 9 minutes 54 seconds, thus -exceeding 60 kph.
Europe 1896-1900
Early Problems
The police authorities, confronted with the first few thousand cars on the dusty roads of the Seine region, were the first to face problems that were soon to arise in other countries.
Even by 1893 the Prefect of Paris had established 7.5 mph as the speed limit within the city walls. Now arose other problems: what was to be the rule of the road, right or left? How was precedence at crossroads to be given? How to identify both vehicle and driver?
This last problem was resolved giving to each Department the serial numbers that it had been given in the regulations of the Ministry of Mines to which body was assigned the job of vehicle registration; this system is still in force today. Another problem was the position of the steering wheel which, at that time, was beginning to replace the tiller. Was it to be placed to the left or to the right—not a simple decision to take, so much so that it continued to be discussed for about 40 years. It was only much later, towards 1908, driving from the United States— where driving on the right was already definitively decided — that the majority of cars had their steering wheels on the left, though there remained many exceptions, as all old motorists will remember. Strangely enough, French quality cars used right-hand steering wheels until fairly recent times, although having the right-hand rule of the road.