теор.грамматика / Лекция 2

Лекція 2: BASIC LINGUISTIC NOTIONS. GRAMMATICAL MEANING. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES.

LECTURE 2: BASIC LINGUISTIC NOTIONS. GRAMMATICAL MEANING. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES.

LECTURE 2: BASIC LINGUISTIC NOTIONS. GRAMMATICAL MEANING. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES.

1. Language and speech

2. Paradigmatic :: Syntagmatic relations

3. General characteristics of the grammatical structure of language

4. Grammatical opposition

5. Grammatical category

6. Grammatical meaning

As we have already said, TG serves to analyse lg as a system of interrelated parts, investigates lg facts without giving any prescriptions. Tasks of TG: to give an adequate and systemic description of lg facts from points of view of different lg schools and theories.  

 Language and speech. The distinction between language and speech was made by Ferdinand de Saussure, the Swiss scholar usually credited with establishing principles of modern linguistics.Language is a collective body of knowledge, it is a set of basic elements, but these elements can form a great variety of combinations. Speech is closely connected with language, as it is the result of using the language, the result of a definite act of speaking. Speech is individual, personal whilelanguage is common for all individuals.

Language is opposed to speech and accordingly language units are opposed to speech units. Thelanguage unit phoneme is opposed to the speech unit – sound: phoneme /s/ can sound differently in speech - /s/ and /z/). The sentence is opposed to the utterance; the text is opposed to thediscourse.

Paradigmatic and Syntagmatic relations. A linguistic unit can enter into relations of two different kinds. The division of the language system into the two spheres (paradigmatics and syntagmatics) is not the same as its segmentation into structural levels. The approach is a bit different, the differentiation between paradigmatic and syntagmatic is based on the dichotomy ‘language :: speech’. PARADIGMATIC HAS TO DO WITH LANGUAGE, WHILE SYNTAGMATIC – WITH SPEECH.

The system of language includes the body of material units – sounds, morphemes, words, word-groups. Along with these it includes the regularities, or ‘rules’ of the use of these units. Language and speech are inseparable, they form together a discrete unity. Lingual units are grouped not at random, but according their ‘preferences’. Thus we can trace two different relationships: syntagmatic and paradigmatic.

Paradigmatic relations comprises all the units that can also occur in the same environment. PR are relations based on the principles of similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute one another. For instance, in the word-group A LOAF OF BREAD the word LOAF is in paradigmatic relations with the words SLICE, PIECE, ROLL, etc. The article A can enter into PR with the units the, this, one, same, etc. According to different principles of similarity PR can be of three types:semantic, formal and functional.

1. Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: a book to read = a book for reading. Heused to practice English every day – He would practice English every day.

2. Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms. Such relations exist between the members of aparadigm: man – men; play – played – will play – is playing.

3. Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. They are established between the elements that can occur in the same position. For instance, noun determiners: a, the, this, his, Ann’s, some, each, etc.

PR are associated with the sphere of ‘language’. Paradigmatic relations exist between elements of the system outside the strings where they co-occur. In the sphere of phonology such series are built up by the correlations of phonemes that form binary opposition: voicedness :: devoicedness, length. In the sphere of vocabulary these series are based on the correlations of synonymy :: antonymy, word-building dependences. In the domain of grammar we can speak in terms of paradigmatic relations concerning grammatical numbers, cases, persons, tenses, gradation of modalities, sets ofsentence patterns.

Unlike syntagmatic relations, paradigmatic ones cannot be directly observed in utterances, that is why they are referred to as relations ‘in absentia’ = in the absence. The minimal paradigm consists of two form-stages – e.g. singular-plural. A more complex paradigm can be divided into component paradigmatic series (the system of finite verb forms.)

Syntagmatic are intermediate linear relations between units in a segmental sequence. E.g.:

Elephants’ survival depends on profiting from the experience of many lifetimes.

In this sentence syntagmatically connected are the words and word groups

Elephants’ survival …. depends on ….. depends on profiting ….. profiting from …. the experience ….. the experience of ….. many lifetimes.

Morphemes within the words are also connected syntagmatically – survi-val, profit-ing, life-times.

There are four main types of notional syntagmas:

Predicative (the combination of subject and predicate) SV

Objective (V+O)

Attributive (N+Attribute)

Adverbial (notional word (V,Adj, Adv) + Adv. modifier)

Since syntagmatic relations are actually observed in utterances, they are described by the Latin ‘in praesentia’ (= in the presence)

SR are linear relations, that is why they are manifested in speech. They can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative.

1. Coordinate SR exist between the homogeneous linguistic units that are equal in rank, that is, they are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy.

2. Subordinate SR are the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the other:teach + er – morphological level; a smart student – word-group level; predicative and subordinateclauses – sentence level.

3. Predicative SR are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary predication.

As mentioned above, SR may be observed in utterances, which is impossible when we deal with PR. Therefore, PR are identified with ‘language’ while SR are identified with ‘speech’.