- •4 A/anand one
- •5 A little/a few and little/few
- •E a fear/fears,a hope/hopes,a suspicion/suspicions
- •H elder, eldest; older, oldest
- •Many and much
- •Sense: clever,foolish,idiotic*,intelligent,sensible,silly,stupid.
- •Due, due to, owing to, certain, sure, bound, confident
- •Afraid (of), ashamed (of), sorry (for or about)
- •Far, farther/farthest and further/furthest
- •Much, more, most
- •Somehow,anyhow
- •Somehow,anyhow
- •Away, everywhere, here, nowhere, somewhere, there etc.
- •Always, continually, frequently,occasionally,often, once,twice,periodically,repeatedly, sometimes, usuallyetc.
- •D never, ever
- •Fairly and rather
- •Hardly, scarcely, barely
- •5 All, each, every, both, neither, either, some, any, no, none
- •Neither, either
- •Neither . . . Nor, either ... Or
- •51 Someone, somebody, something,anyone, anybody,anything,no one, nobody,nothing
- •Someone/somebody/something,anyone/anybody/anything,noone/nobody/nothing, everyone/everybody/everything and the adverbs somewhere, anywhere, nowhere,everywhere can be followed by else:
- •One . . . Another/other (s), some . . . Other (s)
- •One another and each other
- •Who,whom
- •Which,what
- •Use of they/them/theirwith neither/either, someone/everyone/no one etc.
- •A These are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
- •Defining relative clauses
- •Relative pronouns used in defining relative clauses The forms are as follows:
- •85 Whoever, whichever, whatever,whenever, wherever, however
- •Whoever,whichever, whatever,whenever, wherever, however
- •By, before
- •On time,intime,ingoodtime
- •On arrival,onarriving,onreaching,ongettingto
- •At the beginning/end, in the beginning/end, at first/at last
- •91 Time: from, since, for, during a from, since and for
- •B during and for
- •To and till/until
- •At, in; in, into; on, onto
- •In and into
- •On and onto
- •Above, over, under, below,beneath etc.
- •D beside, between,behind,in front of, opposite
- •The most important of these are above, about, across,along,before, behind,below, besides, by, down, in, near, off, on, over, past, round, since, through, under, up:
- •Am,is, are,have,had,will and would
- •11 Be, have, do
- •There is/are, there was/wereetc.
- •Can/amable,could/wasableA can and beable
- •Have to
- •15 Must,have,willandshould
- •Interrogative
- •Ifandincase
- •Agree that . . . Expresses anopinion.
- •A assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose, understand
- •A can,do, may, must,shall,will:
- •С feel, hear, see and watch:
- •1 With appear, happen,pretend,seem
- •D advise,allow,permit,recommend Eitneeds/requires/wants
- •D With advise,allow,permit,recommend
- •Regret,remember, forget
- •Go on, stop,try,used(to)
- •A catch/find:
- •Go, come, spend, waste,be busy a goand come
- •Speak to etc.:
- •В will/would you* (please):
- •В will/would/could you? would youliketo?
- •С if I were you I should/would:
- •29 Care, like, love, hate, prefer, wish
- •294 Care and like
- •В wouldcare andwouldlike
- •By would enjoy:
- •297 Wouldrather/soonerandprefer/would prefer
- •Wish,want andwouldlike
- •В let him/them
- •С let there be
- •Must andneedn't
- •Must not
- •С needn't
- •Besides, however,nevertheless, otherwise,so,therefore, still,yet, though
- •For and because
- •As meaningwhen/whileorbecause/since
- •As, when,whileusedto meanalthough,but,seeingthat
- •337 Incase andlest a in case
- •Be goingto:
- •These papers
- •Child up)
For and because
These conjunctions have nearly the same meaning and very often either can be used. It is, however, safer to use because, as a clause introduced by for (which we will call a 'for-clause') has a more restricted use than a clause introduced by because:
A for-clause cannot precede the verb which it explains:
Because it was wet he took a taxi, (for is not possible.)
A for-clause cannot be preceded by not, but or any conjunction:
He stole, not because he wanted the moneybut because he liked stealing,(for not possible)
A for-clause cannot be used in answer to a question:
Why did you do it? ~ I did it because I was angry, (for not possible)
A for-clause cannot be a mere repetition of what has been already stated, but always includes some new piece of information:
He spoke in French. She was angry because he had spoken in French, (for is not possible.)
But She was angry, for she didn't know French. (Here for is correct; because is also possible.)
The reason for these restrictions is that a for-clause does not tell us why a certain action was performed, but merely presents a piece of additional information which helps to explain it.
Some examples of for-clauses:
The days were short, for it was now December.
He tookthefoodeagerly,for he hadeatennothingsincedawn. : When I saw herin theriverI was frightened. For at that point the
. currents were dangerous.
: In speech a short pause is usually made before a for-clause and in '. written English this place is usually marked by a comma, and sometimes, as in the last example above, by a full stop.
because could be used in the above sentences also, though for is better.
331 when, while, as used to express time
A when is used, with simple tenses:
1 When one action occurs at the same time as another or in the span of another:
When it is wet the buses are crowded.
When welived in town weoften went to thetheatre.
2 When one action follows another:
When she pressed thebuttonthelift stopped.
В as is used:
When the second action occurs before the first is finished: As / left the house I remembered the key.
This implies that I remembered the key before I had completed the action of leaving the house; I was probably still in the doorway. While I was leaving would have the same meaning here, but When I left would give the impression that the act of leaving was complete and the door ; shut behind me.
For parallel actions: He sang as he worked.
For parallel development:
As thesun rosethefogdispersed. As it grew darker itbecamecolder =
The darker it grew, the colder it became.
As she cameto knowhim bettershereliedonhim more.
As he became more competent he was given more interesting work. If we used when here we would lose all idea of simultaneous progression or development.
To mean while (= during the time that):
As he stood there he saw two men enter the bar. But there is no particular advantage in using as here, and while
is safer.
As meaningwhen/whileorbecause/since
A Restricted use of as (= when/while)
as here is chiefly used with verbs indicating action or development. It is not normally used with the type of verb listed in 168, except when there is an idea of development, as in B3 above. Nor is it normally used with verbs such as live, stay, remain.
В as used with the above verbs/types of verb normally means because/since:
As he was tired . . . = Because he was tired . . .
As he knew her well. . . = Because he knew her well . . .
As it contains alcohol . . . = Since/Becauseit contains alcohol. . . As he lives near here . . . = Since/Because he lives . . .
С With most verbs, as can be used with either meaning:
As/While he shaved he thought about the coming interview. As/Because he shaved with a blunt razor he didn 't make a very good job of it. If in doubt here, students should use while or because.
D as + noun can mean either when/while or because/since:
As astudenthe had known greatpoverty =
When he was a studenthe had known greatpoverty. As astudenthegets/got in forhalfprice=
Because he is/was a student he gets/got in . . .
As a marriedman,he hasto thinkofhisfamily = Because/Since he is amarriedman. . .
as meaning when/while here is usually followed by a perfect tense. as meaning because/since can be followed by any tense.