2. Ifandincase

A in case is followed by a present or past tense or by should (see 337). It appears similar to if and is often confused with it. But the two are completely different.

An in case clause gives a reason for the action in the main clause: Some cyclists carry repair outfits in case they ^{have a puncture = Some cyclists carry repair outfits because they may have/because it i}s ^{possible they will have} a puncture.

I always slept by the phone in case he rang during the night = I alwayssleptby the phone because (I knew) he might ringduringthenight.

An in case clause can be dropped without changing the meaning of the main clause. In a conditional sentence, however, the action in the main clause depends on the action in the if-clause, and if the if-clause is dropped the meaning of the main clause changes. Compare:

1. bill: I'llcometomorrowin caseAnn wantsme and

2. TOM: I'llcometomorrowif Ann wantsme.

In (a) perhaps Ann will want Bill, perhaps she won't. But Bill will come anyway. His action doesn't depend on Ann's, in case Ann wants me could be omitted without changing the meaning of the main verb. In (b), a conditional sentence, Tom will only come if Ann asks him. His action depends on hers. We cannot remove if Ann wants me without changing the meaning of the main verb.

В An in case clause is normally placed after the main clause, not before it. Note, however, that in case of + noun = if there is a/an + noun: In case of accident phone 999 = If there is an accident phone 999. This may have led to the confusion of if-clauses and in case clauses.

3. ifonly

only can be placed after if and indicates hope, a wish or regret, according to the tense used with it.

A if only + present tense/will expresses hope: If only he comes in time = We hope he will come in time. If only he will listen to her = We hope he will be willing to listen to her.

В if only + past/past perfect expresses regret (see also wish + past/past perfect, 300):

If only hedidn't smoke!=

We wishhedidn't smokeor We are sorry hesmokes. If only (= I/We wish) Tom were here!

If only youhadn't said,'Liar'!=

We wish you hadn'tsaid,'Liar'/Wearesorryyou said,'Liar'.

С if only + would can express regret about a present action as an alternative to if only + past tense (it has the same meaning as wish + would):

If only he would drive more slowly! = We are sorry that he isn 't willing to drive more slowly or a not very hopeful wish concerning the future:

If only (= I/We wish) the rain would stop! (We don't really expect it to stop.)

(See also wish, 300-1.)

if only clauses can stand alone as above or form part of a full conditional sentence.

229 Conditional sentences in indirect speech

A Type 1, basic form. The tenses here change in the usual way: He said, 'If I catch the plane I'll be home by five' = He said that if he caught the plane he would be home by five.

Type 2, basic form. No tense changes:

'IfI had apermit Icouldget a job,' hesaid = Hesaid that ifhe had apermit hecouldget a job.

Type 3, basic form. No tense changes:

'Ifshe hadlovedTom,' hesaid,'shewouldn't haveleft him' = Hesaid that ifshe hadlovedTom shewouldn't haveleft him.

В Examples of if-clauses + commands and requests in indirect speech (see also 320-1):

He said,'Ifyouhavetimewashthefloor' or

He said,'Ifyouhavetimewouldyouwashthefloor?' =

He told/asked me to wash the floor if I had time (note change of order) or

Hesaid that if Ihad timeIwasto wash thefloor.

'If you see Ann ask her to ring me,' he said = He said that if 1 saw Ann I was to ask her to ring him. (The infinitive construction here would be clumsy and less clear.) PETER (on phone): If you miss the last bus get a taxi = Peter says that if we miss the last bus we are to get a taxi. (The infinitive construction would be much less usual here.) (For if you would . . . requests, see 284 F.)

С if-clauses + expressions of advice in indirect speech:

'Ifyou feel ill,' she said,'whydon'tyou go to bed?' or ' . . . you'd bettergoto bed' =

Sheadvised meto go to bed ifIfeltill or

She said that if 1 felt ill I'dbetter/I should go to bed. 'IfIwereyou I'dstop taking pills,' shesaid=

Sheadvised meto stop taking pills.

D if-clauses + questions are usually reported with the if-clause last: 'If the baby is a girl what will they call her?' he wondered = He wondered what they would call the baby if it was a girl. 'If the door is locked what shall I do?' she asked = She asked what she should/was to do if the door was locked.

22 Other uses of will/would, shall/should For will/shall in commands, see 282.

For will/would in requests, see 284. For will/would in invitations, see 286.

For would/should used with like, prefer, wish etc., see chapter 29.

230 Habits expressed by will, would

A Habits in the present are normally expressed by the simple present tense; but will + infinitive can be used instead when we wish to emphasize the characteristics of the performer rather than the action performed. It is chiefly used in general statements:

An Englishman will usually show you the way in the street. (It is normal for an Englishman to act in this way.) This is not a very important use of will, but the past form, would, has a much wider use and can replace used to when we are describing a past routine:

On Sundayshe usedto/wouldget upearly and gofishing. He usedto/wouldspendthewholeday by theriver andin theeveningusedto/wouldcomehomewith marvellousstoriesofthefishhe hadnearly caught.

Note, however, that when used to expresses a discontinued habit, it cannot be replaced by would. (See 162.) Both will and would can be contracted when used as above.

В will can also express obstinate insistence, usually habitual:

If you \will keep your watch half an hour slow it is hardlysurprising that you are late for yourappointments.

would is used in the past:

We all triedto stophim smokingin bed but hewoulddoit.

will and would are not contracted here and are strongly stressed.

С would can express a characteristic action, usually one which annoys the speaker:

Bill objects/objected. ~ He would'./He would object! (He always objects.)

231. should/would think + that-clause or so/not (See 347 for so/not used to replace clauses.)

д Will it be expensive? ~ I should/would think so./I should think it would. (= probably 'Yes') or

/ shouldn't thinkit would./1 shouldn't/wouldn't thinkso./ Ishould/wouldthinknot.(=probably 'No')

By this sort of answer the speaker implies that he doesn't really know but that this is his impression. /

should/would think is therefore less confident than I think.

so/not is not usually possible when should/would think introduces a comment. A that-clause therefore has to be used:

He'sanastrologer,lookingfor work. ~ Ishouldn't/wouldn't think thathe'd find iteasyto getwork.

В If we are commenting on a past action we use should/would have thought:

He actually got a job as anastrologer.~ Ishouldn't/wouldn't havethought that it waspossibleto dothat.

С should/would have expected + an infinitive construction or a that-clause is also possible. The impersonal pronoun you can sometimes replace I:

She has emigrated.~ Has she? You'd/I'dhaveexpectedherto stay in thiscountry.

231. would for past intention

As has already been noted would is the past equivalent of will when will is used for the ordinary future:

He knows he will be late. He knew he would be late. would similarly is the past equivalent of will used to express intention (see 201):

/ said,'Iwillhelp him' =

I said that Iwouldhelp him.

He said,'Iwon't lendyouapenny' =

He said that hewouldn't lendmeapenny.

But notice that whereas would used for future or intention is restricted to subordinate clauses as in the above examples, wouldn't used for negative intention can stand alone:

He won't help me today. (He refuses to help.)

He wouldn't help me yesterday. (He refused to help.) would cannot be used in this way. So to put a sentence such as / will help him today into the past, we have to replace will by another verb:

/ wanted/intended/offeredto help him yesterday.

231. shall I/we? in requests for orders or advice, offers, suggestions

Requests for orders:

How shall I cook it? Where shall we put this? When the request is for advice only we use either shall or should:

Whichoneshall Ibuy? or WhichoneshouldIbuy? Offers:

Shall I wait for you? Shall I help you to pack? Suggestions: Shall we meet at the theatre? Let's meet at the theatre, shall we? (See 318 for shall I/we? in indirect speech.)

231. shall in the second and third persons

shall can express (A) the subject's intention to perform a certain action or to cause it to be performed, and (B) a command. Both these uses are old-fashioned and formal and normally avoided in modern spoken English.

A Examples of shall used to express the speaker's intention:

You shall have a sweet =I'll giveyoua sweetor

/7/ seethatyougetasweet.

He shan't comehere = Iwon't let him comehere. They shall not pass= Wewon'tletthem pass.

In the past, i.e. in indirect speech, it is usually necessary to change the wording:

He said,'Youshall have asweet' = Hepromisedmea sweet.

В Examples of shall used to express a command:

Yachts shall go round the course, passing the marks in the correct order, (yacht-racing rules)

Membersshall enterthenamesoftheirguestsin thebookprovided.

(club rules)

This construction is chiefly used in regulations or legal documents. In less formal English must or are to would be used instead of shall in the above sentences. (See also 282.)

С shall you? is an old-fashioned form which is occasionally still found in some novels possibly because it is shorter and neater than the future continuous tense:

Shallyou go? =Willyou begoing?

231. that . . . should after certain verbs

Certain verbs can be followed by that + subject + should as an alternative to a gerund or infinitive construction. that . . . should is particularly useful in the passive and sometimes is the only possible passive form.

that . . . should is more formal than a gerund or infinitive construction and usually implies less direct contact between the advisers/organizers etc. and the people who are to carry out the action. Verbs which can be used with that . . . should include the following: advise, agree, arrange, ask, beg, command, decide, demand, determine, insist, order, propose, recommend, request, stipulate, suggest, urge. Note also: be anxious, be determined.

She advisedthat weshouldkeepthegatelocked. Sheadvisedthat thegateshouldbe kept locked.

She advisedkeepingthegatelocked/advisedustokeepit locked.

(See 267.)

recommend could be used above instead of advise and would sound more formal.

They agreed/decidedthat theroofshouldberepaired. They agreed/decided to repair the roof.

He arranged that 1shouldgo abroad. He arranged formeto go abroad.

They arrangedthat theministershouldbemet at theairport. They arranged for theministerto bemetat the airport.

be anxious (= wish; see 27 C) takes the same construction as arrange: He is anxious that classes should start/should be started at once. He is anxious for classes to start/to be started at once.

They asked/begged/urged that relief work should be given priority.Theyasked/begged/urged the authorities to giverelief work priority. (See 243.)

He commanded that the army should advance. (He was not necessarily with the army.)

He commanded the army to advance. (He probably was with the army.)

She determined/wasdeterminedthat heshouldstudy music.

Shedetermined/wasdetermined to lethim/makehim study music. Sheinsistedthat heshouldstudy music/insistedonhisstudying music.(See 262.)

He ordered that Ann should go. (He probably told someone else to tell her.)

He ordered Ann to go. (He probably told her himself.) (See 320.)

He ordered that thegoodsshouldbe sent by air. He orderedthegoodsto be sent by air.

He proposed/suggestedthat weshouldtry homeopathicremedies. (See 289.)

He proposed/suggestedthat homeopathicremediesshouldbetried.Heproposed/suggested(our)trying homeopathicremedies.

They stipulatedthat thebest materialsshouldbe used. They stipulatedforthebest materialsto be used.

should is sometimes omitted before be. (See 291 C.)

231. it is/was + adjective + that . . . should

A that . . . should can be used after it is/was advisable, better, desirable essential, imperative, important, natural, necessary, after fair (= just), just, right (these are often preceded by only) and after reasonable, as an alternative to a for + infinitive construction:

It isadvisablethat everyoneshouldhave amap. It is better for him to hear it from you.

It isbetterthat heshouldhearit from you.

It is essential for him to be prepared for this.

It isessential that heshouldbe prepared forthis.

It is only right that she should have a share. should is sometimes omitted before be:

Itisessentialthathe beprepared.

В that . . . should can be used after it is/was absurd, amazing,

annoying, ludicrous, odd, ridiculous, strange, surprising and similar adjectives as an alternative to that + present/past tense:

It is ridiculous that we should be (= that we are) short of water in a

country where it is always raining. The perfect infinitive is sometimes used when referring to past events:

It isamazingthat sheshouldhavesaid (=that she said) nothing about themurder.

231. Other uses of should

A After can't think why/don't know why/see no reason why etc. when the speaker queries the reasonableness or justice of an assumption:

/ don't know why youshouldthinkthat Ididit.

I see no reason why you should interfere in their quarrel. The perfect infinitive is usual when the assumption was in the past:

/ can't thinkwhy heshouldhavesaid that it wasmy fault.

В Idiomatically with what, where, who in dramatic expressions of surprise:

What should I find but an enormous spider! Quite often the surprise is embarrassing: Who should come in but his first wife!

С After lest and sometimes after in case:

1 In literary English lest . . . should is sometimes placed after expressions of fear or anxiety:

He was terrified lest he should slip on the icy rocks. should + perfect infinitive is used when the anxiety concerns a previous action:

She began to be worried lest he should havemetwithsomeaccident.

o lest can also be used in purpose clauses to mean 'for fear that': He dared not spend the money lest someone should ask where he had got it.

As above, this is a literary form.

in case, which is more usual than lest here, can be followed by should or by an ordinary present or past tense:

in case someone should ask/someone asked (See also 227, 337.)

D should is sometimes used in purpose clauses as an alternative to would/could:

He wore a masksothat no oneshouldrecognizehim.

(See 336.)

5. In conditional sentences instead of the present tense:

If the pain should return take another of these pills. (See 224.)

5. In indirect, rather formal, commands when the recipient of the command is not necessarily addressed directly:

He ordered that Tom should leave the house. (See 321 B.) Compare with He ordered Tom to leave which implies that he told Tom himself.

23 The infinitive

238 Form

A Examples of infinitive forms

Present infinitive to work, to do

Present continuous infinitive to be working

to bedoing

Perfect infinitive to have worked, to have done

Perfect continuous infinitive to have been working

to have beendoing

Present infinitive passive to be done

Perfect infinitive passive to have been done

В The full infinitive consists of two words, to + verb, as shown above. But after certain verbs and expressions we use the form without to, i.e. the 'bare infinitive' (see 246):

You had better say nothing. (See 120.)

С It is not normally advisable to put any words between the to and the verb, but see 248, split infinitives.

D To avoid repetition, an infinitive is sometimes represented by its to: Do you smoke? ~ No, but I used to (smoke). (See 247.)

239. Uses of the infinitive

A The infinitive may be used alone, We began to walk, or as part of an infinitive phrase, We began to walk down the road.

В The infinitive may be the subject of a sentence (see 240).

С The infinitive may be the complement of a verb: His plan is to keep the affair secret.

4. The infinitive may be the object or part of the object of a verb.

It can follow the verb directly: He wants to pay (see 241, 243) or follow verb + how, what etc. (see 242) or follow verb + object: He wants me to pay (see 243, 244).

4. be + infinitive can express commands or instructions (see 114). F The infinitive can express purpose (see 334).

7. The infinitive can be used after certain adjectives: angry, glad, happy, sorry (see 26) fortunate, likely, lucky

(see 27)

7. The infinitive can connect two clauses (see 249). I The infinitive can sometimes replace relative clauses (see 77, 250). j The infinitive can be used after certain nouns (see 251).

К The infinitive can be used with too/enough and certain adjectives/adverbs (see 252).

L An infinitive phrase such as to tell the truth, to cut a long story short can be placed at the beginning or end of a sentence (see 253).

239. The infinitive as subject

A An infinitive or an infinitive phrase can be the subject of the verbs appear, be, seem. The infinitive can be placed first: To compromise appears advisable. To lean out of the window is dangerous. To save money now seems impossible.

В But it is more usual to place the pronoun it first, and move the infinitive or infinitive phrase to the end of the sentence:

It appears advisable to compromise.

It isdangerousto leanout ofthewindow.

It seemed impossible to save money. it here is known as the introductory it. Note its use with interrogatives:

Would it be safetocamphere? Wouldn't it bebetterto go on?

The it construction is necessary here. Would + to camp and Wouldn't + to go on would not be possible. С Usually infinitive constructions of this type consist of it + be + adjective + infinitive. (See 26-7.) But sometimes a noun can be used instead of an adjective:

It wouldbe acrime/amistake/apityto cutdown anymoretrees. Itisan offenceto drop litterin thestreet.

D cost/take + object can also be used:

Itwould costmillions/takeyearsto rebuild thecastle.

5. The gerund can be used instead of the infinitive when the action is being considered in a general sense, but

it is always safe to use an infinitive. When we wish to refer to one particular action we must use the infinitive: He said, 'Do come.' It was impossible to refuse. But It is not always easy to refuse invitations can be replaced by Refusing invitations is not always easy. Here the action is considered in a general sense, and either gerund or infinitive is possible. (See also 258.)

5. An it + infinitive construction may be preceded by believe/consider/ discover/expect/find/think (that) and wonder (if):

He thought (that) it would be safer to go by train. After find used in this way we can omit that + the verb be, i.e. we can say:

He found (that)it was easy to earnextramoney or

He found it easy to earnextramoney.

Hewillfind (that)it ishard to makefriends or

He will find it hard to make friends. This is sometimes also possible with think:

He thought it safer to go.

After other verbs, however, the student is advised not to omit the be. (For similar gerund constructions, see 258.)

5. The perfect infinitive can also be used as the subject of a sentence:

To have made the same mistake twice was unforgivable. Similarly with it first:

It isbetterto havelovedandlost thanneverto havelovedat all.

241 The infinitive as object or complement of the verb

A The most useful verbs which can be followed directly by the infinitive are:

agree** be determined*

*

pretend*

aim endeavour proceed

appear* fail promise*

arrange** forget* prove* ask** guarantee* refuse

attempt happen*remember* bother(negative) hesitate resolve**

care (negative) hope seem*

choose learn* swear*

claim** long tend

condescend manage threaten*

consent neglect trouble

(negative)

decide** offer try ( = attempt)

decline plan undertake*

demand** preparevolunteer determine** be prepared vow

* See D, ** see F.

Auxiliary verbs

be dare have must ought willfan domay need shall used

(For verbs taking object + infinitive, see 244.

For verbs taking infinitive or gerund, see chapter 25.)

В The following phrases can also be followed by an infinitive:

be about it + occur* +to + object

be able + afford (negative or interrogative)

do one'sbest/ set out

do what one can takethetrouble

make an/every effort turn out* (= prove to be)

make up one's mind* (= decide)

* See D.

С Examples of A and В

She agreed to pay £50.

Two menfailedto returnfrom theexpedition.Imanagedto put thefireout.

They are preparing (= getting ready) to evacuate the area. We are not prepared (= willing) to wait any longer. The tenants refused to leave. Prices always tend to go up. She volunteered to help with Meals on Wheels. He is just about to leave, (on the point of leaving; see 114 C) We can't afford to live in the centre. He didn 't bother/trouble to answer personally. Opposite of the above:

He tookthetroubleto answerpersonally.

4. Starred verbs or expressions can also be used with a that-clause (see 346):

I promiseto wait= IpromisethatIwillwait.

He pretended to be angry = He pretended that he was angry. it + occur + to + object + that is used in the affirmative, negative and interrogative. Note the difference in meaning between this form and occur + infinitive: It occurred to me that he was trying to conceal something. (The idea

came to me.)

It didn't occur to me to ask him for proof of his identity. (I didn't think of asking. So I didn't ask.)

appear, happen, seem, turn out, when used with a that construction, require an introductory it:

It turned out that his 'country cottage' was an enormous bungalow. Compare with the infinitive construction:

His'country cottage' turnedout to be anenormousbungalow.

4. A verb + infinitive does not necessarily have the same meaning as the same verb used with a that-clause. With learn, forget, occur (see D above) and remember the meaning will be different:

He learnt to lookafterhimself.

He learnt (= was told) that it would cost £100.

He forgot to leave the car keys on the table. (He didn't leave them.)

He forgot that his brother wanted to use the car. remember could be used similarly with the opposite meaning.

agree/decide + infinitive expresses an intention to act.