
прагматика и медиа дискурс / Teun A van Dijk - Text and Context
.pdfPREFACE |
ix |
introductory chapter, in which some basic problems of the study of discourse are raised. The inquiry is in two parts, one semantic and the other pragmatic, which means that all aspects of the surface structure properties of discourse are neglected. In the semantics we proceed from a study of the conditions of connection between propositions, as expressed by natural connectives, to other coherence conditions of discourse, first at the level of sequences and then at the level of global semantic macro-structures. In the second or pragmatic part, some of these phenomena are taken up again in tercos of speech acts and speech act sequences.
Since the theoretical foundations of these respective parts, viz FORMAL SEMANTICS and the PI-ILOSOPHY OF ACTION, are not yet generally familiar to the student of linguistics, I have added two introductory chapters about these important domains instead of referring the reader to other introductory surveys (if any), which are short, simple and relevant enough for our purposes. For further details, however, we have referred to more specialized studies in these respective fields.
Not only is the aim to explore the linguistic theory of discourse and the relations between semantics and pragmatics in general, but to provide an introduction to the subject and offer some insights into a number of basic issues in (text) grammatical theory. Some elementary knowledge of modern linguistics and the theory of speech acts, however, is presupposed, as well as some notions from rudimentary set theory. Although notions from formal semantics are explained and applied, our mode of exposition will on the whole be informal. Finally, it should be emphasized that on many points our observations are tentative and/or incomplete, many issues deserving booklength treatment. It seemed more appropriate at the moment, however, to raise a number of issues and show how they are interrelated rather than to go into the full intricacies of one single phenomenón.
For critica] comments on the preliminary draft of this book and for discussions concerning some of the topics treated in it I am indebted to Lubomír Dolezel, Alois Eder, Uwe Mónnich, Petr Sgall, Helmut Schnelle, and in particular to David Harrah, Cees van Rees, Hugo Verdaasdonk, Jeroen Groenendijk and Martin Stokhof who have pointed out my worst errors (some of which require correction in our future work). To Robert de Beaugrande I am indebted for many helpful suggestions on style, and I also would like to acknowledge the helpful comments of the editors of the Linguistics Library in which this book appears, as well as the assistance and suggestions of Peggy Drinkwater of Longman.
Finally, special thanks for many discussions and suggestions are due to my wife Dorothea Franck, who has also been the essential 'happiness condition' in the production context of this text, and to whom, therefore, this book is dedicated.
University of Amsterdam |
TA V D |
June 1976
Contents
Preface |
vii |
Symbols and technical conventions |
xv |
INTRODUCTION |
|
1 The linguistic study of discourse |
|
1 Aims and problems |
1 |
2 The organization of this study |
8 |
3 The study of discourse |
11 |
PART 1 SEMANTICS |
|
2 A brief introduction to formal semantics |
19 |
1 Formal languages |
|
2 Truth-functional semantics |
21 |
3 Predicate logic and its semantics |
23 |
4 Modal logics and their semantics |
27 |
5 Extension and intension |
33 |
6 Formal semantics and natural language |
37 |
3 Connection and connectives |
|
1 Connection |
43 |
1.1 Aims and problems ofdiscourse semantics |
43 |
1.2 Conditions of semantic connection |
45 |
2 Connectives |
52 |
2.1 Connectives in natural language |
52 |
2.2 Natural and logical connectives |
53 |
2.3 Conjunction |
58 |
X11 |
|
CONTENTS |
2.4 Disjunction |
63 |
|
2.5 |
Conditionals |
67 |
2.6 |
Contrastives |
81 |
2.7 Connectives combined |
82 |
|
2.8 |
Connected sequences |
86 |
2.9 Connection and connectives: conclusions |
88 |
|
4 Coherence |
|
|
1 Aims and problems |
93 |
|
2 The semantics of coherence |
95 |
|
3 Coherence analysis: some examples |
98 |
|
4 Fact ordering and sequence ordering |
103 |
|
5 Explicit and implicit information in discourse |
108 |
|
6 Topic, comment, focus, and their functions in discourse |
114 |
|
5 Macro - structures |
|
|
1 Introduction |
130 |
|
2 Topics of discourse |
131 |
|
3 Macro-operations and semantic information reduction |
143 |
|
4 Macro-structures and the conditions of |
148 |
|
connection and coherence |
||
5 Linguistic evidence for macro-structures |
149 |
|
6 Macro-structures and discourse types |
153 |
|
7 The cognitive basis of macro-structures |
155 |
|
PART II PRAGMATICS |
|
|
6 Sorne notions from the theory of action |
|
|
1 Introduction |
167 |
|
2 Events, actions, processes |
168 |
|
3 Doings, acts, actions |
172 |
|
4 Mental structures of action |
178 |
|
5 Negative action |
181 |
|
6 Interpretations and descriptions of action |
182 |
|
7 Action logic |
184 |
|
8 Interaction |
185 |
7 Contexts and speech acts
1 The aims of pragmatics |
189 |
2 The structure of context |
191 |
3 Acts of language |
195 |
CONTENTS |
x111 |
8 The pragmatics of discourse |
|
1 Aims and problems of discourse pragmatics |
205 |
2 Sentences and sequences |
206 |
3 Connectives, connection and context |
210 |
4 Speech act sequences |
213 |
5 Pragmatic information processing |
218 |
6 The pragmatics of representation in discourse |
223 |
7 Text versus context |
228 |
9 Macro - speech acts |
|
l The global organization of communicative interaction |
232 |
2 Macro-action |
233 |
3 Macro-speech acts |
238 |
4 Macro-speech acts and discourse |
243 |
Bibliography |
249 |
índex |
257 |
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:
Executors of James Joyce Estate, Jonathan Cape Limited, and the Society of Authors for an excerpt from `Ivy Day in the Committee Room' from Dubliners by James Joyce; Robert Hale & Co, and James Hadley Chase for extracts from his book
Symbols and technical conventions
CONNECTIVES
&, V , , -
r
IF
=
logical connectives of conjunction, disjunction, material implication/conditional, material equivalence
logical negation meta-variable for connectives
derivability (provability, theoremhood) in logical syntax semantic entailment
identity; strict material equivalence strict material implication
relevant implication/conditional
strict relevant implication (expressing entailment) causal relations of necessitation, conditioning, together with E, 0, 0
semantic mapping (macro-rule) (based on entailment)
OPERATORS |
|
0,0,0 |
modal (alethic) operators of necessity, probability and |
|
possibility |
P, F, N |
tense operators of past, future and now |
K, B, W |
epistemic, doxastic and boulomaeic operators of |
|
knowledge, belief and want |
I, DO |
action operators of intention and bringing about |
T |
change operator over states of affairs |
SET-THEORETICAL SYMBOLS
e,, |
is an element of, is not an element of, is part of |
{. , .} |
set indicators |
|
ordered set (n-tuple) indicators |
xvi SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL CONVENTION 5
V |
set-union |
.) |
functíons (where <k may be any letter) |
EXPRESSIONS |
|
p, q, r, ... |
proposition letters |
a p, y, ... |
meta-variables for propositions |
x, y, z, ... |
individual variables |
a, b, c,... |
individual constants |
u, v, . |
action variables |
A, B, C, ... |
event variables/constants; person variables/constants |
f, g, h, ... |
predicate letters |
4), vi,... |
predicate (meta-)variables |
S., S;, ... |
sentence variables |
E;, Ej, ... |
sequence (of sentences) variables |
f, fa,... |
fact variables |
QUANTIFIERS |
|
V |
universal quantifier: for all .. . |
3 |
existential quantifier: for at least one .. . |
SEMANT1C SYMBOLS |
|
V |
valuation function |
V + |
valuation function for truth and connection values |
1, 0 |
truth and falsity; connectedness and disconnectedness; |
|
topic and comment |
D; d;, da,... |
set of individuals and its members |
W; w;, wj, ... |
set of possible worlds and its members |
T; t;, t., ... |
set of time points and its members |
Z; z;, z;, ... |
set of possible topics of discourse/conversation and its |
|
members |
<D, W, ..., V> model of modal predicate logics |
|
Ok |
union of the sets of individuals referred to by expressions |
|
of sentences satísfied in the first k —1 models of a |
|
discourse model (fe the set of previously mentioned |
•^ (= V(¢)) |
referents). |
the denotatum of r¢ |
|
L, 4, 1; |
the set of locations and its members |
w0, to, z0, ... |
the actual possible world, time point, topic of |
|
conversation, .. . |
R |
binary relation over W: accessibility, alternativity |
< |
(sometimes with epistemic índex) |
binary relation over T: precedence |
|
1 |
binary relation over Z: initiatability |
T( ) |
set of conceptual frames and its members |
topicalization function |
SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL CONVENTIONS |
Xvii |
|
PRAGMATIC SYMBOLS |
|
|
C, c;, c;, ... |
set of possible contexts and its members |
|
co |
the actual context |
|
S( |
speaker function |
|
H( |
hearer function |
|
U, u;, u;, ... |
set of utterance types and its members |
|
uo |
the actual utterance type |
|
luol |
the actual utterance token |
|
<to , lo , co ... |
> here-now in actual context |
|
OTHER CONVENTIONS
1 Cited expressíons and sentences are always in italics when occurring in the text (but not when shown on separate example lines).
2 Propositions are enclosed between bold `single quotes'.
3 Utterances are in italics and between "double quotes".
4 Concepts are between single quotes'.
5 Important and theoretical terms are in
6 Frame-names are in
INTRODUCTION