§ 3. If there are several subordinate clauses in a sentence, the rule of the sequence d tenses is observed in all of them.

As the weeks went by... he began to believe that she had been able to think of her girlish fancy that Arthur was in love with her and would marry her as a folly of which she was timely cured. (Eliot)

§ 4. The rule of the sequence of tenses also holds good when a past tense is used in a subordinate clause to which other clauses are subordinated.

She says he knew they would never return. (Bennett) He said he was sure you were in.

§ 5. It should be noted that the rule of the sequence of tenses is observed after verbals if they depend on a finite verb in the past tense:

Cowperwood stood by his desk... wondering where he should get one hundred thousand dollars. (Dreiser)

§ 6. In Russian, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause does not depend on the tense of the verb in the principal clause.

TENSES USED IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES AFTER A PAST TENSE IN THE PRINCIPAL CLAUSE

ENGLISH

Past Indefinite

I knew she played the piano every day.

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RUSSIAN

Present

Я &нал, что она играет (играла) на рояле каждый день,

I knew she had not played the Я знал, что она давно не играла

Past Continuous

I knew she was playing the piano and did not want to disturb her.

Past Perfect

I knew she had played the piano at the evening party.

Past Perfect Continuous (Past Perfect Inclusive)

I knew she had been playing (had played) the piano for two hours.

Past Perfect

piano for a long time.

Past Perfect Continuous Exclusive

I knew she had been playing the

piano.

Future in the Past

I knew she would play the piano at the evening party.

Present

Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле, и не хотел ее бес­покоить.

Past

Я знал, что она играла на рояле на вечере.

Present

(in affirmative sentences)

Я знал, что она играет (играла) на рояле два часа.

Past

(in negative sentences)

(не играет) на рояле.

Past Я знал, что она играла на рояле.

Future

Я знал, что она будет играть

на рояле на вечере.

§ 7. The main sphere where the sequence of tenses is applied is object clauses.

Harris said he knew what kind of place I meant. (Jerome)

The sequence of tenses is not observed if the object clause expresses a general truth:

The pupils knew that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen.

In political language a present tense is often used in the object clause after a past tense in the principal clause.

The speaker said that the peoples want peace.

The sequence of tenses is often not observed if something is represented as habitual, customary, or characteristic.

He asked the guard what time the train usually starts. (Curme) He did not seem to know that nettles sting. (Curme)

§ 8. In conventional direct speech the tenses are used accord­ing to the same principle which governs their uses in complex sen-

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tences with a principal clause and an object clause, though there is no principal clause.

She put her hands up to her ears; it was because there were some thin gold rings in them, which were also worth a little money. Yes, she could surely get some money for her ornaments. The landlord and landlady had been good to her; perhaps they would help her to get the money for these things. But this money would not keep her long; what should she do when it was gone? (Eliot)

§ 9. The sequence of tenses does not concern attributive rela­tive clauses and adverbial clauses of cause, result, comparison, and concession (if the verb stands in the Indicative Mood).

I didn't go out of the shop door, but at the back door, which

opens into a narrow alley. (Eliot)

He didn't go to the cinema last night because he will have an

exam to-morrow.

She worked so much yesterday that she is feeling quite weak

to-day.

Last year he worked more than he does this year.

He insisted on going to the library yesterday, though he will

not want the book to-day.

§ 10. The sequence of tenses is generally observed in subject clauses and predicative clauses:

What he would do was of no importance. The question was what he would do next.

It is also observed in appositive attributive clauses:

She had a sickening sense that life would go on in this way (Eliot)

Chapter XIX INDIRECT SPEECH

§ 1. In contrast to direct speech, in which the exact words of the speaker are given, indirect speech is a form of utterance in which these words are reported,

§ 2. When direct speech is converted into indirect speech the following changes are introduced:

1. The quotation marks and the comma (or colon) are omitted.

2. If the speaker reports somebody else's words the pronouns of the 1st person are replaced by those of the 3rd person; the pro­ nouns of the 2nd by those of the 1st or 3rd.

He said, "I am ready." He said he was ready.

If the speaker reports his or her own words, the pronouns are naturally not changed:

I said, "I am ready." I said I was ready.

3. If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, de­ monstrative pronouns and adverbials expressing nearness are replaced by words expressing distance:

Here is replaced by there. This by that, these by those.

Now by then, at that time (moment), or no adverb is used at all.

To-day is replaced by that day.

Yesterday by the day before or on the previous day.

Ago by before.

A year ago by a year before.

Last night by the previous night.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

She said, "We have been here for She said they had been there for

a week." a week.

She said, "I met them yesterday." She said she had met them the

day before. She said, "We can't settle anything She said they could not settle

now." anything at that moment (then).

If the speaker speaks in the same place and at the same time as the speaker whose words are reported, the demonstrative pro­nouns and adverbs are not changed.

"An hour ago he said he would come here to-night."

I told him I wouldn't give him an answer till to-morrow. (Wilde)

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4* If the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense, the tenses are changed according to the rule of the sequence of tenses.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

The Present Indefinite is replaced by the Past Indefinite. She said, "We often write letters." She said they often wrote letters.

The Present Continuous is replaced by the Past Continuous. She said, "We are writing a letter." She said they were writing a letter.

The Present Perfect is replaced by the Past Perfect.

She said, "We have just written She said they had just written a a letter." letter.

The Present Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.

She said, "We have been writing She said they had been writing

for an hour." for an hour.

The Past Indefinite is replaced by the Past Perfect.

She said, "We wrote a letter last She said they had written a letter night." on the previous night.

The Past Continuous generally remains unchanged, or is replaced by the Past Perfect Continuous.

She said, "I was writing at 5 She said she .was (had been) o'clock." writing at 5 o'clock.

The Past Perfect remains unchanged.

She said, "We had written the She said they had written the letter by 5 o'clock." . letter by 5 o'clock.

The Past Perfect Continuous remains unchanged.

She said, "We had been writing She said they had been writing

for an hour by 5 o'clock." for an hour by 5 o'clock.

The Future Indefinite is replaced by the Future Indefinite in the Past.

She said, "We'll write a letter She said they would write a letter to-morrow." the next day.

The Future Continuous is replaced by the Future Continuous in the Past.

She said, "We'll be writing at She said they would be writing 5 o'clock." at 5 o'clock.

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The Future Perfect is replaced by the Future Perfect in the Past.

She said, "We'll have written the She said they would have written letter by 5 o'clock." the letter by 5 o'clock.

The Future Perfect Continuous is replaced by the Future Per­fect Continuous in the Past.

She said, "We'll have been writing She said they would have been for 2 hours by 5 o'clock." writing for 2 hours by 5 o'clock.

If the Past Indefinite in direct speech denotes an action taking place at a definite moment, it remains unchanged in indirect speech.

She said, "I had left home before She said she had left home before the telegram came." the telegram came.

The Past Indefinite after since generally remains unchanged.

She said, "I have been writing She said she had been writing since I came." since she came.

5. When sentences containing the Subjunctive Mood are con­verted into indirect speech the form of the verb usually remains unchanged.

However, there is a case when the rule of the sequence of ten­ses is observed: if we have the analytical subjunctive with the mood auxiliary may, may is changed into might if the verb in the principal clause stands in a past tense.

DIRECT SPEECH

I should be discharged if I were seen speaking to you. (Shaw)

It is true I drink, but I shouldn't have taken to that if things had gone differently. (Maugham)

I think cheerfulness is a fortune in itself. I wish I had it. (Eliot)

Oh, how I wish I had never seen

him! (Hardy) The boys will think none the worse

of you whatever you may have

done. (Conan Doyle)

INDIRECT SPEECH

She said that she would be dis­charged if she were seen speak­ing to him.

He admitted that he drank, but said he would not have taken to that if things had gone dif­ferently.

She thought cheerfulness was a fortune in itself. She wished she had it.

She said she wished she had never seen him.

He said that the boys would think none the worse of him whatever he might have done.

6. The verb introducing direct speech is replaced by another verb which shows whether the indirect speech is a statement, a question, an order (request) or an exclamation.

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She said, "I've never seen the like

of it." She said to him, "Do you know

them?" She said to him, "Come here at

once!" She said, "Why, I never expected

he would do such a thing."

She declared she had never seen

the like of it. She asked him if he knew them.

She told him to come at once.

She exclaimed she had never ex­pected he would do such a thing.

(For detailed treatment see § 3, 4, 5, 7.)

7. It should be borne in mind that there is a great difference between the style of direct and that of indirect speech.

Direct speech is characterized by a certain looseness of structure and is more emotional than indirect speech.

Indirect speech, on the contrary, is characterized by rigid logic of structure and terseness.

Accordingly, if, for instance, no conjunctions expressing causal relations are to be found in direct speech, they must be introduced into indirect speech.

She said, "I am so tired! I've been She said she was very tired as writing for five hours." she had been writing for five

hours.

If certain words and phrases are repeated in direct speech, they must not be reproduced in indirect speech.

She said to him, "It's very kind She said it was very kind of him of you to offer to help me, very to offer to help her. kind indeed."

So and such are replaced by very, exceedingly, etc. in excla­matory sentences.

She said, "Jane plays the piano so well!"

She said Jane played the piano very well.

She said Jane was an exceedingly (very) good pianist.

Interjections must be replaced by suitable adverbial modifiers.

She said, "Alas! I'll never be happy She exclaimed in despair she again!" would never be happy again.

8. Must, as a rule, remains unchanged in indirect speech if it expresses advice (order) or a supposition bordering on assurance (должно быть).

She said to him, "You must be

more careful." (advice) She said, "You must be very fond

She said, "Jane is such a pianist!"

good

She told him he must be more

careful. She said he must be very fond of

music if he went to concerts

so often.

of music if you go to concerts so often." (supposition)

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She was informed that she must never again walk much. (Hardy) He said he was afraid you must think him ungrateful. (Marryat) Mr. Brownlow smiled and said that Mr. Grimwig was an old friend of his and he must not mind his being a little rough in his manners. (Dickens)

Must is generally replaced by had to if it expresses necessity arising out of circumstances.

get up early

She said, "I must every morning."

She said she had to get up early every morning.

Must is generally replaced by was to if it expresses arrange­ment or a kind of order.

She said, "I must ring him up at two o'clock."

She said she was to ring him up at two o'clock.