шпоры по ЛС англии

1) Geo position of Br.I

The BI are situated on the continental shelf off the north-west coast of Europe.

From the European continent the British Isles are separated by the E. Channel and the North Sea.BI is washed by: Atlantic ocean (west), The North Sea(east)

GB and Ireland are separated by the Irish Sea and 2 straits: the North Channel+ St. George’s Channel

-the total area: 322,246 sqkm

-population:60 million people(one of the most densely populated parts of the earth’s surface)

Britain formally known as the Ukingdom of GB and NI. It comprises the mainland of England, Wales, and Scotland (GB) and the northern part of Ireland. The southern part of Ireland, the second largest island of the group is the Irish Republic.

-the UK’s area-244,100sqkm.

1)Off the north-western coast of GB-group of islands-the Hebrides(Inner and Outer)-separated from each other by the sea of the Hebrides and the Little Minch.

2)separated from the mainland by the Pentland Firth- the Orkney Islands.

3)The Shetland Islands –about 100km north of the Orkneys.

4)in the middle of the Irish Sea- the Isle of Man( is administrated by its own Manx Parliament.)The population is engaged in farming, fishing, tourist trade. The largest settlement is the holiday resort Douglas.

5)in the Irish Sea-Anglesey island(separated by the Menai Strait). It is a place of a very famous village with the longest place name in GB. The population engaged in local industry.

6)The Isle of Wight- in the E.Channel. Separated from the mainland by the Solent.

7)a tiny group of the Isles of Scilly- in the E. Channel.

8)the Channel Islands . To the French they are Known as the Isles Normandes. The form an archipelago and separated by shallow waters from northern France. The chief islands of the group-Jersey and Guernsey.

-the coastline of the BI is indentedthere are many bays, harbors, peninsulas. The western coasts of Scotland and Wales- indented  this offers economic advantages the possibility to establish ports in this inlets.

The BI are of the continental origin. Once it was a part of Europe. But after melting of the snow it was separated by a shallow stretch of sea.

The zone of shallow water which surrounds the continent resembles a shelf above the deep water of the oceans- the continental shelf.

!!The advantageous geographical position of GB created good conditions for the development of shipping, trade and the economy.

Benefits of the Shelf:

1. fishing (warm water);

2. oil and natural gas deposits (platforms in the North Sea);

3. the Channel Tunnel (the depth of the water over the Tunnel is only 30m);

4. mild climate (shallow water gets warm during the day and never gets too cold during the night).

3) Formation of the Populatiom of Gr. Br.

3 000 B.C. – the Iberians/Neolithic (New Stone Age) People/Megalithic (Big Stone) People crossed the English Channel in small boats. They came from the Iberian Peninsula (territory of present-day Spain). They settled in Ireland and in the west of Great Britain (present-day Wales).

They lived in stone huts, knew the art of grinding and polishing the stone making the edges and points of it sharp. The are also referred to as “the Battle Axe People” as they invented a kind of battle axe made of stone. It is said that the Iberians started the construction of the Stonehenge

2 400 B.C. – the “Beaker Folk” came from the east of Europe and settled in the south-east of Britain. They are known for their fine pottery (beakers).

They were round-headed, strongly built and taller than the Iberians. They are also known for the first individual graves furnished with pottery and bronze tools that began to replace the stone ones.

1 000 B.C. – the Picts came from somewhere on the Continent and settled mainly in Scotland. Some scientists distinguish them as a separate group of Celtic origin that came independently, others think they were just a mixture of the Iberians and the Celts that arrived later.

The Picts were short, dark-hared, aggressive, covered all over with paintings and tatoos (that’s why the Romans called them “Pictus”, i.e. “painted”

The language of the Picts is a mystery. The scientists can easily split it into words and read but cannot decode it (cannot get the meanings of the words and the message of the texts).

700 B.C. – the Celts arrived from Central Europe pushing the local inhabitants into the territory of present-day Wales, Scotland and Ireland. They were tall, red-hared and blue-eye. There were 2 main Celtic tribes that settled in the British Isles:

1)Scots(first they settled in Ireland and then moved to Scotland and intermixed with the Picts) : The Gaelic Branch: Languages (Irish/Erse (Ireland), Scotch Gaelic (the Scottish Highlands), Manx (dead; the Isle of Man)

2) Britons(settled in the south-east of England). The Britonnic Branch: languages (Breton (Brittany, modern France), Welsh (Wales), . Cornish (dead; Cornwall).

The Celts also had their own ancient alphabet called Ogham (see details in the Internet).

The Celts were technologically advanced. They knew the how to work iron.

Celtic Life: The Celts were successive farmers. They introduced more advanced ploughing methods that made it possible to farm on heavier (solid) soils. The Celts introduced money in the form of iron bars, later (a Roman borrowing) – coins.

Roman Invasion

55 B.C. – Julius Caesar attacked Britain. Reasons:

economic – Britain was an important food producer due to its mild climate + it was rich in raw materials (tin ore, corn, slaves) + Britain provided slaves for the Roman army;

political – the Romans fought with the Celts of Gaul on the continent who found shelter in Britain and were supported by the Celts of Britain. Soon after his arrival, Julius Caesar left Britain with many slaves and riches.

43 A.D. – Emperor Claudius conquered Britain and it became a province of the Roman Empire. The only area that caused much trouble was Caledonia (Scotland). The Romans spent more than 100 years trying to conquer it and failed. Finally, they decided to build a wall – Hadrian’s Wall – to keep pot the Celtic raiders from the north and to mark the border.

Roman Life: The Romans brought reading and writing skills and the Latin language to the British Isles. But only town-dwellers spoke the language of the Romans while in the villages the Celts used their Celtic dialects. The Romans established towns as centres of administration and civilisation. The Romans established London as the most important trading centre. The Romans built roads that continued to be used long after the Romans left Britain. The Roman control came to an end as the Roman Empire began to collapse. The Romans were gradually leaving the country going back home to protect the Empire. The left romanised Celt alone to fight the Scots in the north, the Irish in the west and the Anglo-Saxons that started to arrive from the mainland. 410 A.D. – the last Roman soldiers left Britain.

Anglo-Saxon Invasion

5th c. A.D. (430) – the Germanic tribes started to arrive to Britain. The were 3 powerful tribes that came in 3 waves:

1)Jutes(Origin-Nothern Denmark or Scandinavia)-settled Kent, Isle of Wight

2)Saxons( origin-Germany)-settled Sussex, Essex, Wessex

3)Angles(origin- Southern Denmark)- settled East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria

These Germanic tribes pushed the Celts to Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The 3 tribes were very close in speech, customs and traditions and gradually merged into one nation called the Anglo-Saxons.

5 Norman Conquest, the establishment of feudalism, main dates

The Norman conquest of England began in 1066 with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by the troops of William, Duke of Normandy, and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. This resulted in Norman control of England, which was firmly established during the next few years.

The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. It largely removed the native ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy, and clerical hierarchy. This, in turn, brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England.

By subjecting the country to rulers originating in France it linked England more closely with continental Europe, while lessening Scandinavian influence, and set the stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently for many centuries.

The Norman Conquest is associated with the establishment of feudalism. The system of serfdom was imposed.

The king owned all or most of the land and gave it to his leading nobles in return for their loyalty and military service. The nobles in turn held land that peasants, including serfs, were allowed to farm in return for the peasants' labor and a portion of their produce. Under feudalism, people were born with a permanent position in society.

The written record of a census and survey of English landowners and their property made by order of William the Conqueror in 1085-1086 is known as the Domesday Book. According this register > 2 mln people lived in England. 90 % of the populations were serfs.

Unique features of feudalism:

• The system reached a higher regularity than elsewhere;

• The king’s power was greater than barons;

• The power of the state was built around the king’s power and the big lords had to accept it whether they liked it or not.

1066 - Death of Edward the Confessor in January, Harold II accedes to the English throne. Norman invasion and conquest of England, Harold II is killed and William the Conqueror becomes King of England.

1071 - Norman conquest of England complete

1096 - First crusade begins

1266 - Western Isles acquired by Scotland

1468 - Orkney and Shetland Islands acquired from Norway by Scotland

1536 – Henry VIII brought Wales under the English parliament through special Acts of Union.

16th century, legislation had united England and Wales.

1603 - the crowns of England and Scotland had been united

The 1707 Acts of Union were passed by the Parliaments of England and Scotland, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain.

1800 - Great Britain was united with Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

6 Modern population of UK, languages, minorities

The people who now inhabit the British Isles are descended mainly from the people who lived here some 9 centuries ago. The English nation was formed as a result of the amalgamation of the native population of the British Isles – the pre-celts and the Celts with the invaders: Germanic tribes, the Danes, the Normans.

In the early 18^th cent. Britain was inhabited by 6.5 mln people. In 1901 the population of the UK increased from 38.2 mln to 59.8 mln in 2000.

For the 1^st time ever, the UK has more people aged over 60 than under 16.

The population is very unequally distributed over the four parts of the UK:

England more or less constantly makes up 84% of the total population, Wales around 5%, Scotland roughly 8.5 %, and Northern Ireland (since 1921) less than 3%.

Britain is and has always been a mixed race society. Early in our history we were invaded by Romans, Saxons, Vikings and Normans armies and later Africans were brought to Britain by force in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as slaves or servants. Over the years, thousands of people have arrived in Britain as refugees from France, Ireland, Russia, and other countries, escaping from persecution or famine in their own countries.

There are British people whose parents first came to Britain in the 1950s and 1960s from the Caribbean, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong and other places. Their homes are mainly in the big English cities like London, Birmingham and Manchester.

About 8% of the population of Britain today are people from other cultures and ethnicities. That is 4.6 million people. About 9 % of the people in Britain are non-white. 92.1% White (mainly of British Isles descent, with minorities of other descent); 4.0% South Asian; 2.0% Black; 1.2% Mixed; 0.4% Chinese; 0.4% Other

Nearly half (45 %) of the total minority ethnic population live in London.

Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK.

Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country. Communities migrating to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country. Official and main language is English >70%; Minority languages (officially recognized) are Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Lowland Scots, Cornish, Irish; Main foreign language is French (28%); Main immigrant languages are Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Polish, Chinese, Spanish, Greek, Arabic, Portuguese, French, Afrikaans, Turkish, Lithuanian.

4 Danish raids of England. The struggle of Alfred the Great and its results.

At the beginning of the 9^th cent. Wessex became the most powerful kingdom in England. However, it began to face a most dangerous enemy. They were the Danes and Northmen frequently called as the Vikings. These 2 Scandinavian people were closely related with one another, but in the main the Danes were invaders of England.

The Vikings came in their large open rowboats from the Scandinavian coasts and from Jutland (Denmark) to the British Isles as pirates, bent on plunder, but later they came in larger numbers, conquering one territory after another. The Vikings were great seamen known widely around the world. They ploughed the seas and oceans on their long-ships with their great square sail.

By the 60s of the 9^th cent. they began to attack east England conquering one territory after another. The kingdom of Wessex alone was left to resist them. Fortunately, there appeared a Saxon king to resist them. This was Alfred born 849.

At first fortune was not on his side, but eventually he gathered his men and defeated the Danes. As a result England was divided into 2 parts by a line drawn from London to Chester: the Dane-law and Saxon England.

Much effort was undertaken to fortify English towns and villages. He built many ships to keep off the Danes from English shores. He is considered to be the founder of the English fleet.

2 Physical geography of British Isles; Rivers, Lakes; Weather, Climate; Mineral Resources

The relief is represented by Highlands, Lowlands, deep valleys, plains. The highest parts are in Scotland. North Wales, North of England and the central region of England.

England:

Mountains: The Pennines – “the backbone of England”, forms a watershed separating the west-flowing and east-flowing rivers of England; the highest point – Cross Fell (893m); The Cheviot Hills – form a natural border between England and Scotland; the highest point – the Cheviot (816m); The Cumbrian Mountains – famous for the Lake District; the highest point – Scafell (978m).

Plains: Salisbury Plain; The South-West Lowlands and Uplands (600m); The Midland Plains.

Rivers: The Thames (332km), The Trent (274km), The Ouse, the Humber, the Tees, the Tyne (flow into the North Sea); The Mersey, the Eden (flow into the Irish Sea).

Lakes: Windermere – the largest in England; Grasmere; Ullswater.

Wales:

Mountains: The Cambrian Mountains – famous for the Snowdon resort; the highest point – the Snowdon (1085m).

Rivers: The Severn (350m) – the longest in GB, begins in Wales, flows through England (flows into the Irish Sea); The Wye (flows into the Irish Sea).

Scotland:

Regions: The Highlands – take up 50% of the territory of Scotland but only 15% of the population lives here. The Highlands consist of the 3 parts: the Northern Highlands; the Glen More Depression; the Grampian Mountains – contains the highest peak of the British Isles – Ben Nevis (1347m); The Central Lowlands/the Midland Valley – take up only 15% of the territory of Scotland but 15% of the population lives here; The Southern Uplands.

Rivers: The Clyde (flows into the Irish Sea); The Tweed, the Forth, the Dee, the Tay (flow into the North Sea).

Lakes: Loch Lomond – the largest in GB; Loch Ness – the longest in the British Isles, famous for its monster;

Northern Ireland:

Mountains: The Antrim Mountains – comprise the famous Giant’s Causeway; The Sperrin Mountains; The Mourne Mountains.

Rivers: The Shannon (384m) – the longest on the British Isles;

Lakes: Lough Neagh – the largest in the British Isles.

Weather – a state of atmosphere over a short period of time.

Climate – average weather conditions over a long period of time.

Britain is an island country and the surrounding sea gives England a varied climate. The main influence on climate is the island’s close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude, and the warming of the waters around the land by the Gulf Stream (a warm current of the northern Atlantic Ocean). Gulf Stream helps to keep winters milder compared with other landlocked nations with a similar latitude. The overall climate on British Isles is called temperate maritime. Winters are never too cold, summers are never too hot. The warmest months – July and August, the coldest – January and February.

Winter (Average t= +3 – +5 C; Normal t= –10 C)

Summer (Average t= +12 – +17 C; Normal t= +25 – +30 C)

Relief is the most important factor controlling the distribution of temperature and precipitation in Britain. The average annual rainfall in Britain is about 1,100 mm. But the geographical distribution of rainfall is largely determined by topography. Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, although March to June are the driest months and October to January are the wettest.

The distribution of sunshine shows a general decrease from south to north – the south has much longer periods of sunshine than the north.

Mineral Resources

The UK used to be a country of considerable amount of mineral resources (coal, iron ore, copper, lead, tin, etc.) but in the course of the last hundred years most of the deposits have been worked out. At the present moment the UK imports lots of raw materials (iron, zinc, nickel, chrome, copper), forest and half of its food.

Major Resources:

1. Coal (not as important now as it was before, it is replaced by oil and uranium) – was used as a fuel. Deposits: Yorkshire, Lancashire, Newcastle, Central Scotland (Glasgow) and Southern Wales (the Cambrian Mountains).

2. Oil and Gas – usually occur together; are used as fuel and in chemical industry. Oil and natural gas have been discovered in the 1950s on the Shelf in the North Sea. Since then many platforms have been built in the North Sea to take oil and natural gas ashore through the submarine pipelines.

3. Iron Ore – usually found in the areas of major coal basins.

4. Non-metallic Minerals:

• Common Rocks/Granite – used in house-building and road-making; deposits – Devon, Cornwall;

• Clay – used for the production of bricks;

• Chalk – used in cement industry; deposits – the Thames, the Humber;

• Salt – used for the production of chemicals, textile, in soap-making;

• Sand and Gravel – found in the north of England and in Central Scotland.

7. Density and distribution of the population of UK, urban-rural population

In 1086 William the Conqueror ordered so-called Domesday book(the population wsa 2mil.) Today the country has a population density of about 246 people to the square km, in Wales 141,in Scotland 66, in Northern Ireland-119.

The Highlands of Scotland, the Northern Pennines and mountainous Wales are very sparsely populated.

The most highly populated regions are South-East England with Greater London, the Midlands, Lancashire, West Yorkshire, South Wales, Clydeside in Scotland and North-East England. In some of these districts the density reaches 1000 and even more per 1 km. The country has a considerable % of the ageing population. It is a serious social problem.

Urbanization: urban – 89%. rural – 11%

9. Monarchy and its Role in Present-day U.K.

The U.K. is a constitutional monarchy. In reality the monarch reigns but does not rule. As a constitutional monarch Queen Elizabeth the Second acts on advice of Her Prime Minister and does not make any major political decisions. The U.K. is actually governed by Her Majesty’s Government in the name of the Queen.

The Queen is the symbol of the national unity and stability. She personifies the state and has a lot of titles. She is: the Head of the Executive; a part of the Legislature; the Head of the Judiciary; the Commander-in-Chief of all armed forces of the U.K.; the Head of the Anglican Church; the Head of the Commonwealth.

Although the Queen is deprived of actual power, she has retained many important, though formal, functions. She: summons and dissolves Parliament; gives Her Royal Assent to bills passed by both Houses of Parliament; appoints the Prime Minister (usually the leader of the political party that has the majority in the House of Commons, i.e. the leader of the party that came first at General Elections), other ministers (on Prime Minister’s advice), judges, officials in the armed forces, governors, diplomatic representatives and bishops; confers peerages, knighthoods and other honours; gives audience to Her Ministers; receives accounts of the Cabinet decisions and is informed and consulted on every aspect of national life; has the power the declare war, make peace, recognise foreign states and governments, conclude treaties, etc.

Future of the Monarchy

Today the British monarchy is one of the greatest tourist attractions. The Queen herself remains popular in the country, but various marital problems in her family have lowered the prestige of royalty. Antimonarchists underline also the high cost of the monarchy. The Queen is one of the richest women of the world. “The Civil List” is the money she and some other members of her family get from Parliament each year (through a special tax) so that they can carry out their public duties.

Certain steps are being taken to protect and preserve the monarchy. One of them is “The Way Ahead Committee”. It consists of the Queen, Prince Philip, Prince Charles and some of the top-ranking advisors. It is supposed to help the monarchy to remain in tune with modern life. The Queen realises that the monarchy needs some changes =>: proposal to end the primogeniture; proposal to lift the ban for heirs to the throne to marry Roman Catholics, etc.

British Constitution: The Constitutional monarchy means that the power of a monarch is limited by the Constitution and an elected Parliament.

Peculiarities of the British Constitution: there is no written constitution/the British constitution is unwritten; it is not contained in any single document.

The British Constitution comes from the variety of sources:

1. Historical documents/statutes, e.g. “Magna Carta” (1215) – nobles forced King John to sign this document according to which the power of a monarch was limited; a monarch should rule in accordance with law and custom; people had right to resist an unjust king.

2. Laws/Acts of Parliament, e.g.:

• the Bill of Rights (1689) – Parliament should be freely elected; freedom of speech; no taxation without the agreement of parliament; no power for king to suspend any law; the army could be raised only with Parliament’s agreement, etc.;

• the Act of Settlement (1701) – gave Parliament the right to decide upon the succession to the throne;

• the Representation of the People Act (1918) – women received the right to vote; ruled for holding elections, etc.;

• the Act of 1999 – abolished hereditary principle in the House of Lords.

11. Give an account of the main functions of the British Parliament outlining the process of passing a bill. Explain the term “Devolution” and its significance for the national parts of the UK.

Functions of Parliament:

1. law-making;

2. taxation;

3. discussing the issues of the day.

Procedure of Passing a Bill in British Parliament

Types of Bills:

1. Public Bills:

• concern public policies;

• can be introduced in either of the Houses (except for the bills involving taxation and spending public money – these ones can be introduced only in the House of Commons) by a minister or a private member (MP) (than it is called a private member’s bill);

• cannot be carried over from one session to the next one.

2. Private Bills:

• concern the matters of individual, corporate or local interest;

• introduced through a petition, presented to Parliament by its promoter who is also responsible for its cost;

• can be carried over from one session to the next one.

The process of passing a public bill is similar in both Houses of Parliament:

Stage 1: First Reading – a formal announcement of the bill (its title, name of the person who is responsible for it and the day of the Second Reading) with no debate.

Stage 2: Second Reading – the House debates general principles of the bill and in most cases takes a vote.

Stage 3: Committee Stage – a committee of MPs/peers studies the details of the bill thoroughly and votes on amendments to the bill.

Types of parliamentary committees:

• select committee – controls the Executive by examining some aspects of administration and reports the results to the House;

• standing committee – examines public bills at the Committee Stage, sometimes also at the Second Reading and the Report Stage. In standing committee the balance of parties reflects that in the House as a whole;

• joint committee – consists of the members of both Houses appointed to consider a particular issue or a particular bill. The proposal to send a bill to a joint committee comes from the House where the bill was originated.

Stage 4: Report Stage – the House considers the proposed amendments and takes a vote.

Stage 5: Third Reading – purely formal stage; the bill is reviewed and debated as a whole.

Stage 6: The bill is sent to the other House for the same procedure. If the other House makes new amendments they will be considered by the House that originated the bill.

Stage 7: Royal Assent – after both Houses have reached agreement on the bill, it is sent to the Queen for the Royal Assent and after it is signed by the Queen it becomes

Devolution in Britain

Devolution – the act of giving power from a national government to a group or organisation at a lower or more local level.

Devolution in the U.K. means decentralisation or shifting the responsibility from Parliament in London to local parliaments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The Labour Party came to power in 1997 with proposals for parliament in Scotland, assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland. Some people are very optimistic about it, some call it the end of Britain.

The Scottish Parliament:

1. The Referendum of 1997 in Scotland => the Scottish supported the idea of devolution.

2. The Scotland Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of the Scottish Parliament.

3. 1999 – the first elections took place and the Scottish Parliament was officially opened. There are 129 members in it. The decide on “devolved” matters (i.e. education, health, environment, agriculture, justice) while the 72 Scottish MPs represent their constituencies in London on “reserved” matters (defense and national security, employment, foreign affairs).

4. Functions of the Scottish Parliament:

• to hold the Scottish Executive accountable through oral and written questions;

• to make laws on devolved matters;

• to debate important issues;

• to publish reports.

12. Discuss the electoral system. Give an evaluation of the “majority electoral system” existing in GB. Comment on the latest general elections. Change of government in 2007. reasons.

Electoral System in the U.K.

The House of Commons is the only chamber in Parliament that is elected at General Elections:

1. General Elections are held every 5 years.

2. The U.K. is divided into 646 (2005) constituencies (electoral districts). The constituencies do not coincide with counties. Each constituency has the same average number of people – 60 000 – and elects one member to the House of Commons.

3. The candidates may be nominated by different parties of there may be so-called “independents” (candidates that do not belong to any party). The candidate who wins the majority of the votes (it does not have to be over 50%, but merely more votes than any of the other candidates individually has won) wins the elections.

4. The party that wins the majority of the votes becomes the leading party and its leader becomes Prime Minister and forms the Government (the Cabinet). The party that comes second becomes the official opposition. Such system is called “the majority system” or “first-past-the-post” system and is considered to be unfair because it gives little chance to small parties to send their candidates to the Commons while the system of proportional representation aims to give each party the proportion of seats in Parliament corresponding to the proportion of votes it received at General Elections.

5. All parties publish their manifestos before General Elections. They are intended to tell the electorate what the party would do if it formed the next Government.

6. The British citizens may vote provided they are aged 18. If they are/live abroad (less than 15 years) they can vote in a British embassy or by post.

7. The voting is on the same day (usually Tuesday) in all the constituencies from 7 a.m. till 9 p.m. Elections are held by secret ballot.

8. By-elections can be held:

• as a result of elevation of an MP to the House of Lords;

• when a vacancy occurs as a result of death or resignation of an MP or if he can no longer be an MP.

10. Describe the structure and composition of the British Parliament. The reform of the House of Lords and its role. The House of Commons, composition and role.

The British Parliament consists of the Queen and the two Houses of Parliament: the House of Lords and the elected House of Commons. These elements are separate and meet together only on occasions of symbolic significance. The House of Lords is the second chamber of the British Parliament. Members of this chamber (known as peers) consist of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. Members of the House of Lords are not elected. In the 20^th century The House of Lords faced several successful reforms:

1911-Parliament Act

The ability to block legislation indefinitely was placed by the delaying power of 2 years.

1949-Parliament Act

The period of delay was reduced from 2 years to 1 year.

1958-Life Peerages Act

Peerages could be given on a non-hereditary basis for the first time. Women entered the lords the same year.

1999 –House of Lords Act

Removed hereditary peers with the exception of the 92 remaining.

The House of Commons consists of 646 MPs. The Commons hold their seats during the life of the parliament (generally 5 years). The chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker.

The composition of the HoC after 2005 general elections is the following:

Parties

Labour 356

Conservative 198

Liberal Democrat 62

SNP 6 Democratic Unionist 9 Plaid Cymru 3

Sinn Féin 5

Ulster Unionist 1

Social Democratic and Labour 3

Independent 1

Total 646

8. National traits, traditions, sports

The British national traits result from the British way of life and the geographical position of the British Isles. For centuries the British have lived an insular life, being isolated from the rest of Europe. So, they acquired the following trait that are, of course, only a stereotype and are to be taken as a generalisation:

1. Self-assurance, confidence, independence. Sometimes the British show some sense of superiority (=snobbism, as a result of the class division of the society) and pride (they think themselves a very special nation that stands out from the other nations of Europe).

2. Patriotism and national pride. The British still remember the glorious past of the British Empire that used to be one of the greatest empires in the world and still prefer to think they are a great nation regardless of the fact that the USA has surpassed it on the political arena.

3. Tolerance of individual differences and eccentricities. The British never intrude in the lives of their neighbours (strong belief in private property and privacy) and accept the fact that they have right to do things their own way. Everybody has the right to live his life as he wishes to as long as it does not trouble the public order.

4. Practicality and moderation. The British try to avoid extremes and choose the golden middle. They love comfort and hate stress. They are also a very law-abiding nation – sticking to the rules helps one to avoid stress and difficulties.

5. Conservatism. The British love familiar things in familiar places and fear the introduction of something new and unknown in their life (that’s why they still support the Monarchy). Moreover, customs and traditions are very important, are treasured and strictly observes.

6. Coldness and reserve. It is said that the British are cold and reserved because they do not talk to strangers, do not show much emotion, never ask personal questions or give personal information about themselves. But once you get to know an Englishman better he turns to be a very friendly and sociable person.

7. Modesty. The British do not like to boast or speak too much about themselves or their success in life.

8. Politeness and tact. The British often use the formulas of politeness in speech (pardon?, would you please.., etc.).

9. Sense of humour. The British sense of humour is based on the ability to laugh at themselves, at their own faults. They use irony a lot and tell their jokes in a serious snobbish tone to make them sound ridiculous.

Also they like Pubs – local institutions where the local people meet to rest, eat, talk, listen to music and play games such as darts or billiards. The most popular drink is beer or ale. Children under 16 are not allowed in the pubs. Most pubs have interesting names (“The White Heart”, “The Red Lion”, etc.).

1. The tradition of having a fireplace at home (mostly because of the rotten weather).

2. The tradition of afternoon tea.

3. Most popular sports (invented by the British): soccer; golf; rugby; billiards, pool, snooker; table tennis (invented in 1880);darts (developed from archery);cricket; squash.

Traditional Dishes:

1. Fish and chips – fish rolled in salt and flower and baked in lots of oil + potato fries. Very greasy.

2. Puddings

3. Porridge (oatmeal)

4. Meat pies

5. Tea (with milk) – the British drink a quarter of all the tea grown in the world on at least 8 occasions during the day.

Foreigners visiting Br. сonsider the British to be unsociable as compared to the French, Germans, Italians- people living on the Continent, not to say of the Americans.

The dream of every Briton is to have a house, home in countryside.(This feature is historically deep-rooted. The Norman Conquest was the last time a foreign invader of Britain, though many attempts were made. However they were unsuccessful. A country people though very urbanized society)