3.2. Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition

Some scholars (e. g. Prof. E. I. Shendels) use the term grammatical metaphor for this kind of phenomena (30, 31). We know that lexical metaphor is based on the transfer of the name of one object on to another due to some common ground. The same mechanism works in the formation of a grammatical metaphor.

Linguistic units, such as words, possess not only lexical meanings but also grammatical ones that are correlated with extra-linguistic reality. Such grammatical categories as plurality and singularity reflect the distinction between a multitude and oneness in the real world. Such classifying grammatical meanings as the noun, the verb or the adjective represent objects, actions and qualities that exist in this world. Howev­er this extra-linguistic reality may be represented in different languages

Chapter 3. Stylistic Grammar

3.2. Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition

in a different way. The notion of definiteness or indefiniteness is gram­matically expressed in English by a special class of words—the article. In Russian it's expressed differently. Gender exists as a grammatical category of the noun in Russian but not in English and so on.

A grammatical form, as well as a lexical unit possesses a denotative and a connotative meaning. There are at least three types of denotative grammatical meanings. Two of these have some kind of reference with the extra-linguistic reality and one has zero denotation, i. e. there is no reference between the grammatical meaning and outside world.

1. The first type of grammatical denotation reflects relations o| objects in outside reality such as singularity and plurality.

2. The second type denotes the relation of the speaker to the first type of denotation. It shows how objective relations are perceived by reactions to the outside world. This type of denotative meaning is expressed by such categories as modality, voice, definiteness and indefiniteness.

3. The third type of denotative meaning has no reference to the extra-linguistic reality. This is an intralinguistc denotation, conveying relations among linguistic units proper, e. g. the formation of past tense forms of regular and irregular verbs.

Denotative meanings show what this or that grammatical form desig­nates but they do not show how they express the same relation. How­ever a grammatical form may carry additional expressive information, it can evoke associations, emotions and impressions. It may connote as well as denote. Connotations aroused by a grammatical form are ad­herent subjective components, such as expressive or intensified mean­ing, emotive or evaluative colouring. The new connotative meaning of grammatical forms appears when we observe a certain clash between

form and meaning or deviation in the norm of use of some forms. The stylistic effect produced is often called grammatical metaphor.

According to Shendels we may speak of grammatical metaphor when there is a transposition (transfer) of a grammatical form from one type of grammatical relation to another. In such cases we deal with a redistribution of grammatical and lexical meanings that create new connotations.

Types of grammatical transposition

Generally speaking we may distinguish 3 types of grammatical trans­position.

1. The first deals with the transposition of a certain grammar form into a new syntactical distribution with the resulting effect of contrast. The so-called 'historical present' is a good illustration of this type: a verb in the Present Indefinite form is used against the background of the Past Indefinite narration. The effect of vividness, an illusion of «presence», a lapse in time into the reality of the reader is achieved.

Everything went as easy as drinking, Jimmy said. There was a garage just round the corner behind Belgrave Square where he used to go every morn­ing to watch them messing about with the cars. Crazy about cars the kid was. Jimmy comes in one day with his motorbike and side-car and asks for some petrol. He comes up and looks at it in the way he had. (Waugh)

2. The second type of transposition involves both—the lexical and grammatical meanings. The use of the plural form with a noun whose lexical denotative meaning is incompatible with plurality (abstract nouns, proper names) may serve as an apt example.

Chapter 3. Stylistic Grammar

3.3. Morphological stylistics

The look on her face... was full of secret resentments, and longings, and fears. (Mitchell)

3. Transposition of classifying grammatical meanings, that brings together situationally incompatible forms—for instance, the use of a common noun as a proper one.

The effect is personification of inanimate objects or antonomasia (a person becomes a symbol of a quality or trait—/V/r. Know-Ail, Mr. Truth, speaking names).

Lord and Lady Circumference, Mr. Parakeet, Prof. Silenus, Colonel MacAdder. (Waugh)