Контрольная работа №2. Вариант ni.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1.Определите в каждом предложении видо-временную форму и залог гла­гола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения.

1. He has been in business since last March.

2. A lot of letters and cables are typed and send to customers every day.

3. When I first met him he had just returned from London.

4. By next year our factory will have produced one million refge­rators.

5. Our equipment was bought in lot of countries.

6. What were you doing at 5 o'clock yesterday?

7. We asked him what countries he had visited.

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на согласование времен.

1. He said that he would be back the next day.

2. The secretary explained that the President had left the offi­ce.

3. They told us that they were ready to discuss the Draft Cont­ract.

4. I'm sure he will speak English well at the examination.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. Определите функции глагола TO BE, TO DO и TO HAVE. Переведите предложения.

1. I didn't know he had left.

2. He has a sister.

3. He does everything slowly.

4. She is having dinner at the moment.

5. They were to finish this work yesterday.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия I и II и причастные обороты.

1. Having learned English she began to study French.

2. Numerous questions answered by the speaker were related to economy of Great Britain.

3. The letter to her parents being written, she went to post it.

4. We continued our work, with our laboratory assistants helping us.

5. I saw him crossing the street.

ЗАДАНИЕ 5. Определите формы инфинитива:

TO DESIGN, TO BE DESIGNED, TO HAVE DESIGNED, TO HAVE BEEN DESIGNED, TO BE DESIGNING

ЗАДАНИЕ 6. Определите функции инфинитива и переведите предложения.

1. To know English is necessary for a specialist.

2. He was too tired to be asked any questions.

3. They are glad to have passed their exams.

4. It is necessary to master this specialty.

5. He found the problem too difficult to solve.

ЗАДАНИЕ 7. Переведите на русский язык, определив функцию герундия.

1. He likes listening to music.

2. They left without talking to him.

3. Smoking is not allowed here.

4. His favorite pastime is watching TV.

5. We thought of reading this article as soon as possible.

6. Mastering a foreign language thoroughly is not easy.

Задание 8. Переведите текст.

Factors of Production: Capital and Labour

Factors of production are resources used by firms as inputs for a good or service to be produced. Factors of production are as follows: capital, labour, and natural resources.

In economic theory, the term "capital" refers to goods and money used to produce more goods and money. Classifications of capital vary with the pur­pose of the classification. The most general distinction is the one made be­tween physical, financial, and human capital.

Physical capital is land, buildings, equipment, raw materials; bonds, stocks, available bank balances are included in the financial capital. They both make a great contribution to production.

To group capital into fixed capital and circulating capital is common prac­tice¹. The former refers to means of production such as land, buildings, ma­chinery and various equipment. They are durable, that is, they participate in the production process over several years. Circulating capital includes both non-renewable goods, such as raw materials and fuel, and the funds required to pay wages and other claims against² the enterprise. Non-renewable goods are used up in one production cycle and their value is fully transferred to the final product.

Human capital is knowledge that contributes "know-how" to production. It is increased by research and disseminated through education. Investment in human capital results in new, technically improved, products and produc­tion processes which improve economic efficiency. Like physical capital, hu­man capital is important enough to be an indicator of economic development of a nation.

It is common, in economics, to understand labour as an effort needed to satisfy human needs. It is one of the three leading elements of production. Labour has a variety of functions: production of raw materials, manufactur­ing of final products, transferring things from one place to another, manage­ment of production, and services like the ones rendered by physicians and teachers.

One can classify labour into productive and unproductive. The former produces physical objects having utility. The latter is useful but does not pro­duce material wealth. Labour of the musician is an example.

Unlike other factors of production, for example capital, once workers are employed, their efficiency can vary greatly with organization of work and their motivation.

Demand for labour is influenced by the demand for goods produced by workers, the proportion of wages in total production costs, etc. The supply of labour depends upon the size of population, geographic mobility, skills, edu­cation level (human capital), etc. Workers supply labour either individually or through trade unions. If demand for and supply of labour are not in equilib­rium, there is unemployment. The rate of unemployment is a percentage of the total labour force without a job. It is desirable for an economy to have the lowest possible unemployment rate and to achieve higher employment as nei­ther full use of resources nor maximum level of output can be achieved in an economy having unemployment.

Factors of production are combined together in different proportions in order to produce output. It is assumed in economics that one should choose the combination of factors which minimizes the cost of production and in­creases profits.

The third factor of production, natural resources, poses too many economic problems³ to be discussed here. We will analyze them in the following unit.

Укажите, какие предложения не соответствуют содержанию текста Factors of Production: Capital and Labour. Дайте правильный вариант.

1. In economics, the term "capital" refers to labour and natural resources used to produce goods.

2. Physical capital is more important for production than financial one.

3. Fixed capital includes such durable means of production as land, build­ings, machinery, and equipment.

4. Unproductive labour is less important for society than productive one.

5. Labour efficiency can vary greatly from one enterprise to another de­pending on management of work and workers' motivation.

6. The demand for labor depends on the size of population, geographic mobility and human capital.

7. It is possible for an economy to achieve full employment.

Выберите подходящее по смыслу слово из предлагаемых в скобках вариантов.

1. (Like/ Unlike) physical capital, human capital is expensive.

2. A man's budget constraint is fixed (определяется) by the total amount of time (following / available) over a given period such as a day, a month, a year.

3. Individuals can (either/neither) spend their income on consumption (or / nor) save it.

4. A person has an income which allows him to consume (efficient / vari­ous) goods and services and live in a particular neighborhood (район).

5. In labor markets many aspects are regulated: paid holidays, the length of working day and week and other aspects of the (employment / contri­bution) relationship.

6. Changing policies (require / vary with) constant updating (обновление) of statistical systems.

7. How the European Union's statistical system is adapting to (require­ments/values) in the 21st century is of importance (either / both) in­side (or/and) outside the EU.

8. Some part of (circulating capital/fixed capital), for example equipment, loses its value in the (cost of production / production process), another part of (circulating capital /fixed capital), for example land, may grow in value.

Переведите предложения на русский язык, обращая внимание на то, что слово which относится ко всему предыдущему предложению и переводится словом «что».

1. Employment among young men is very low in Germany, which is due to the government's subsidies for education.

2. The government did not pay due attention to the economists' recom­mendations, which led to lower economic growth.

3. Some economists expect world population to reach 12-13 billion as soon as 2020-2025, which will require much more non-renewable resources than at present.

4. The consumer incomes have risen, which has resulted in lower demand for inferior goods.

5. Under conditions of food shortage a government might prefer to im­pose a price ceiling on food, which will let poor people continue to buy adequate quantities of food.

ВАРИАНТ N II.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. Определите в каждом предложении видо-временную форму и залог гла­гола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения.

1. I haven't been on holiday this year.

2. Yesterday an important contract was signed.

3. I shall have finished this work by 7 o'clock.

4. Books are not sold here, only newspapers and magazines.

5. The customer had seen the new equipment at the factory before he ordered it from us.

6. We shall be learning a foreign language when you come to see us.

7. She has already typed the letter.

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на согласование времен.

1. The cable said the Customer would place a large order for our equipment.

2. I'm sure he will speak English fluently in two years.

3. He asked us if we knew his address.

4. All of us knew that she had studied English at school.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. Определите функции глагола TO BE, TO DO и TO HAVE. Переведите предложения.

1. Students will have vacation in summer.

2. The letter was written yesterday.

3. He had to take part in our discussion.

4. Machines now do most of the hard work instead of men.

5. He was at the Institute in the morning.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия I и II и причастные обороты

1. Being asked about his life, he told us a great many interes­ting things.

2. While translating difficult texts we use a dictionary.

3. There being nobody at home, I had dinner alone.

4. He coming very late, we had to stay at home.

5. Having read the book I returned it to the library.

ЗАДАНИЕ 5. Определите формы инфинитива:

TO DESIGN, TO BE DESIGNED, TO HAVE DESIGNED, TO HAVE BEEN DESIGNED, TO BE DESIGNING

ЗАДАНИЕ 6. Определите функции инфинитива и переведите предложения.

1. To solve this problem is extremely difficult.

2. The article to be translated is rather difficult.

3. Popov was the first to invent radio.

4. He is glad to have begun working at this problem.

5. We knew him to be a good economist.

ЗАДАНИЕ 7. Переведите на русский язык, определив функцию герундия.

1. He likes listening to music.

2. They left without talking to him.

3. Smoking is not allowed here.

4. His favorite pastime is watching TV.

5. We thought of reading this article as soon as possible.

6. Mastering a foreign language thoroughly is not easy.

Задание 8. Переведите текст.

Factors of Production: Natural Resources and Land

Economists consider natural resources to be the third factor of produc­tion. They are a contribution to productive activity made by land (for exam­ple, a factory site or farm location), raw materials such as iron ore, timber, oil, water for crops and power production, forests and animals.

Some natural resources, wheat, for example, are renewable, others such as iron ore are non-renewable and will sooner or later be used up. Economists know reduced supplies of non-renewable resources to result in their higher prices, which provide an incentive to look for natural or synthetic substitutes for them.

The supply of land, an essential natural resource, is limited and it cannot be easily increased to meet an increase in demand except in certain cases. For example, the Dutch have been able to reclaim from the sea some areas of low-lying land.

Another essential characteristic of land is that it is durable, that is, land is not used up in the production process, although it may be depleted by use.

Land is, in some respects¹, close to physical capital, though the former is supplied by nature and the latter is produced by man. But applying labour to ill weeds or fertilizer to improve the soil, farmers can "produce" better land and raise its price.

Price of or income from land, as well as from other natural resources, is called rent. Land itself has no cost of production, so rent depends on the degree of scarcity and on the demand for it.

The purposes for which land is used are due to its characteristics. Land can be used for housing or offices, for mining, or for building roads. Besides, it contributes to the production of crops, providing an environment that sup­plies water, air, and nutrients for plant growth.

Land as a unique agricultural resource poses management problems for the farmer. In the first place², the farmer has to make a choice between buy­ing and leasing it. The advantages and disadvantages depend on the farmer's financial position, on the availability of land for lease and purchase and some other factors.

Because purchasing land usually requires a larger capital, farmers with limited capital lease land and use their capital for machinery and other re­sources.

Economists consider a satisfactory lease to be the one that is profitable both for the landowner and the tenant. A fair lease compensates both parties in proportion to their contributions to the farm business.

Other management problems may arise due to differences in land profit­ability in various farming branches and other industries. Economists know different crops and classes of animals to vary in profitability. The farmer has to study thoroughly the conditions on his farm to make a correct choice be­tween alternative uses.

Although the total supply of land is limited, its allocation between indus­tries is not. If a government wants to stimulate, for example, either housing or forestation, it offers a subsidy raising the rent received by owners of housing land or forests. This may create incentives for farmers to transfer land from farming to other industries.

Пояснения к тексту

in some respects — в некоторых отношениях, in the first place — прежде всего

а) Расположите вопросы к тексту в таком порядке, чтобы они могли служить планом текста и ответьте на них.

Why is land transferred from one industry to another? Why is land an essential agricultural resource? When do farmers buy land and when do they lease it? What natural resources are named in the text? Can the supply of land be increased? When do prices for non-renewable resources rise? How can a farmer raise the price of land? Why do farmers have to choose between alternative uses of land on their farms? Why is land durable? For what purposes is land used?

б) Подумайте и скажите:

1. What other renewable and non-renewable resources besides the ones mentioned in the text can you name?

2. What advantages and disadvantages of land lease for a farmer can you think of?

ВАРИАНТ N III.

ЗАДАНИЕ 1. Определите в каждом предложении видо-временную форму и залог гла­гола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения.

1. I came at 6 but they had finished the work by that time.

2. The new equipment will be delivered by the year.

3. Have you ever met him?

4. He will have repaired his car by Saturday.

5. English is spoken in many countries.

6. They woke after the alarm clock had already rung.

7. He was told to wait.

ЗАДАНИЕ 2. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на согласование времён.

1. I knew that Peter would live in Kiev the following year.

2. He said that he had met with customers two days before.

3. He said that he traveled much.

4. We didn't know where she had lived before.

ЗАДАНИЕ 3. Определите функции глагола TO BE, TO DO и TO HAVE. Переведите предложения.

1. He has done much to improve his spelling and pronunciation.

2. She has never come in time.

3. I had to take a taxi because I was late.

4. He was reading a book when I came.

5. We are to be in the office at 3 o'clock.

ЗАДАНИЕ 4 . Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на причастия I и II и причастные обороты.

1. Man cultivates many different crops, some of them being used for medicine.

2. I have two friends, one of them studying at the University.

3. Having translated the article I went to the Institute.

4. Reading this book the student found out many interesting things.

5. Considered from this point of view the question will be of great interest.

ЗАДАНИЕ 5. Определите формы инфинитива:

TO DESIGN, TO BE DESIGNED, TO HAVE DESIGNED, TO HAVE BEEN DESIGNED, TO BE DESIGNING

ЗАДАНИЕ 6. Определите функции инфинитива и переведите предложения.

1. She gave us a list of book to be read.

2. The article to be published was written by my brother.

3. To master English one must study regularly.

4. This is not a chance to be missed.

5. He was the first to use this method.

ЗАДАНИЕ 7. Переведите на русский язык, определив функцию герундия.

1. He likes listening to music.

2. They left without talking to him.

3. Smoking is not allowed here.

4. His favourite pastime is watching TV.

5. We thought of reading this article as soon as possible.

6. Mastering a foreign language thoroughly is not easy.

Задание 8. Переведите текст.

Money and Its Functions

Money has four functions: a medium of exchange or means of payment, a store of value, a unit of account and a standard of deferred payment. When used as a medium of exchange, money is considered to be distinguished from other assets.

Money as the medium of exchange is believed to be used in one half of almost all exchange. Workers exchange labour for money, people buy or sell goods in exchange for money as well.

People do not accept money to consume it directly but because it can subsequently be used to buy things, they wish to consume. To see the advan­tages of a medium of exchange, imagine a barter economy, that is, an econ­omy having no medium of exchange. Goods are traded directly or swapped for other goods. The seller and the buyer each must want something the other has to offer. Trading is very expensive. People spend a lot of time and effort finding others with whom they can make swaps. Nowadays, there exist ac­tually no purely barter economies, but economies nearer to or farther from the barter type. The closer is the economy to the barter type, the more waste­ful it is.

Serving as a medium of exchange is presumed to have for centuries been an essential function of money.

The unit of account is the unit in which prices are quoted¹ and accounts are kept. In Britain, for instance, prices are quoted in pounds sterling; in France, in French francs. It is usually convenient to use the same unit to measure the medium of exchange as well as to quote prices and keep ac­counts in. However, there may be exceptions. During the rapid German in­flation of 1922-23 when prices in marks were changing very quickly, German shopkeepers found it more convenient to use US dollars as the unit of ac­count. Prices were quoted in dollars though payment was made in marks. The same goes for² Russia and other post-communist economies which used the US dollar as a unit of account, keeping their national currencies as means of actual payment. The higher is the inflation rate, the greater is the probability of introducing a temporary unit of account alongside the existing units for measuring medium of exchange.

Money is a store of value, for it can be used to make purchases in future. For money to be accepted in exchange, it has to be a store of value. Unless suitable for buying goods with tomorrow, money will not be accepted as pay­ments for the goods supplied today. But money is neither the only nor neces­sarily the best store of value. Houses, stamp collections, and interest-bearing bank accounts all serve as stores of value.

Finally money serves as a standard of deferred payment or a unit of account over time When money is borrowed, the amount to be repaid next year is measured in units of national currency, pounds of sterling for the United Kingdom, for example. Although convenient, this is not an essential function of money UK citizens can get bank loans specifying in dollars the amount that must be repaid next year.

Thus, the key feature of money is its use as a medium of exchange. For money to be used successfully as a means of exchange, it must be a store of value as well. And it is usually, though not always, convenient to make money the unit of account and standard of deferred payment.

Пояснения к тексту

to quote [kwout] - регистрировать, называть, the same goes for ... - то же самое относится к...

a) Ответьте на вопросы к тексту Money and Its Functions.

1. What are the main functions of money?

2. How important is the function of money as a medium of exchange?

3. Why do people accept money as a medium of exchange?

4. What is barter economy?

5. Why are barter economies wasteful?

6. When don't national currencies serve as units of account? Give examples.

7. When is money used as a standard of deferred payment?

б) Подумайте и скажите:

1. Why are goods actually more expensive if the means of payment are different from the units of account?

2. What measures can a seller take if money does not fulfill its function as a store of value properly?

Образец разговорной темы «Моя профессия».