Encyclopedia of SociologyVol._1

Gerard Saucier

Department of Psychology

University of Oregon

PERSONALITY

MEASUREMENT

Erwin K. Scheuch

GERMAN SOCIOLOGY

David R. Schmitt

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

GROUP SIZE

Ronald J. Schoenberg

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

PROBABILITY THEORY

Howard Schuman

Institute for Social Research

University of Michigan

SURVEY RESEARCH

Joseph Scimecca

Department of Sociology

George Mason University

HUMANISM

David Sciulli

Department of Sociology

Texas A & M University

INTERNATIONAL

ASSOCIATIONS IN

SOCIOLOGY

Karen Seccombe

Department of Sociology

Portland State University

ALTERNATIVE LIFESTYLES

Vimal P. Shah

Gujarat University, India

INDIAN SOCIOLOGY

Michael J. Shanahan

Center for Advanced Study

in the Behavioral Sciences

Pennsylvania State

University

ADOLESCENCE

Constance L. Shehan

Department of Sociology

University of Florida

PARENTAL ROLES

Larry D. Shinn

Berea College

WORLD RELIGIONS

James F. Short

Department of Sociology

Washington State University

CRIMINAL AND

DELINQUENT

SUBCULTURES

Robert W. Shotola

Department of Sociology

Portland State University

SMALL GROUPS

William Simon

Department of Sociology

University of Houston

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

John H. Simpson

Department of Sociology

University of Toronto

RELIGION, POLITICS, AND WAR

Richard Mcgrath Skinner

University of Virginia

POLITICAL AND

GOVERNMENTAL

CORRUPTION

David Smith

University of Kansas

GENOCIDE

C.Matthew Snipp

Department of Sociology Stanford University

AMERICAN INDIAN STUDIES

David Snow

Department of Sociology

University of Arizona

CROWDS AND RIOTS

Subhash Sonnad

Department of Sociology

Western Michigan University

NONPARAMETRIC

STATISTICS

Kenneth I. Spenner

Department of Sociology

Duke University

PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Rodney Stark

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

Lauri Steel

American Institutes for

Research

FAMILY SIZE

Ardyth Stimson

Kean University

INTERPERSONAL

ATTRACTION

John Stimson

Sociology Department

William Paterson University

SOCIAL FORECASTING

Philip J. Stone

Department of Sociology

Harvard University

CONTENT ANALYSIS

David Strang

Center for Advanced Study

in the Behavioral Sciences

Cornell University

IMPERIALISM,

COLONIALISM, AND

DECOLONIZATION

Jeffrey J. Strange

Public Insight

CENSORSHIP AND THE

REGULATION OF

EXPRESSION

Raimondo Strassoldo

Dipartimento EST

University of Udine, Italy

NATIONAL BORDER

RELATIONS,

MANAGEMENT OF

Murray A. Straus

University of New

Hampshire

FAMILY VIOLENCE

Robin Stryker

Department of Sociology

University of Iowa

GOVERNMENT

REGULATION

Sheldon Stryker

Department of Sociology

Indiana University

IDENTITY THEORY SYMBOLIC INTERACTION

THEORY

Donald E. Stull

Department of Sociology

University of Akron

HEALTH AND THE LIFE COURSE

INTERGENERATIONAL RESOURCE TRANSFERS

J. Jill Suitor

Department of Sociology

Louisiana State University

REMARRIAGE

Teresa A. Sullivan

Univesity of Texas at Austin

BANKRUPTCY AND CREDIT

Deborah A. Sullivan

Department of Sociology

Arizona State University

BIRTH AND DEATH RATES

Gene F. Summers

Department of Rural

Sociology

University of Wisconsin,

Madison

RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Marvin B. Sussman

INHERITANCE

Richard Swedberg

Department of Sociology

Stockholm University

ECONOMIC SOCIOLOGY

Szonja Szelenyi

Department of Sociology

Cornell University

SOCIALISM AND

COMMUNISM

Jacek Szmatka

Jagiellonian University,

Poland

POLISH AND EASTERN EUROPEAN SOCIOLOGY

Karl E. Taeuber

Department of Sociology

University of Wisconsin

CENSUS

Irving Tallman

Department of Sociology

Washington State University

FAMILY POLICY IN

WESTERN SOCIETIES

Marylee C. Taylor

Department of Sociology

Pennsylvania State

University

PREJUDICE

James E. Teele

Department of Sociology

Boston University

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY (AND JUVENILE CRIME)

WHITE COLLAR CRIME

Bruno Tellia

Dipartimento Economia, Società, Territorio

Universita di Udine, Italy

NEGOTIATION OF POWER

Ann R. Tickamyer

Department of Sociology

The Ohio University

MACROSOCIOLOGY INFORMAL ECONOMY, THE

Marta Tienda

Office of Population

Research

Princeton University

HISPANIC AMERICANS

Jackson Toby

Sociology Department

The State University of New

Jersey, Rutgers

CRIMINALIZATION OF

DEVIANCE

Donald J. Treiman

Department of Sociology

University of California at

Los Angeles

STATUS ATTAINMENT

Gaye Tuchman

Department of Sociology

University of Connecticut

FEMINIST THEORY

Nancy Brandon Tuma

Department of Sociology

Stanford University

SOCIAL DYNAMICS

Austin T. Turk

Department of Sociology

University of California,

Riverside

POLITICAL CRIME

Herman Turk

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Jonathan H. Turner

Department of Sociology

University of California,

Riverside

POSITIVISM

Ralph H. Turner

University of California, Los

Angeles

COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR

Bernard Valade

The Sorbonne

FRENCH SCHOOL OF

SOCIOLOGY, THE

Gerard Saucier

Department of Psychology

University of Oregon

PERSONALITY

MEASUREMENT

Erwin K. Scheuch

GERMAN SOCIOLOGY

David R. Schmitt

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

GROUP SIZE

Ronald J. Schoenberg

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

PROBABILITY THEORY

Howard Schuman

Institute for Social Research

University of Michigan

SURVEY RESEARCH

Joseph Scimecca

Department of Sociology

George Mason University

HUMANISM

David Sciulli

Department of Sociology

Texas A & M University

INTERNATIONAL

ASSOCIATIONS IN

SOCIOLOGY

Karen Seccombe

Department of Sociology

Portland State University

ALTERNATIVE LIFESTYLES

Vimal P. Shah

Gujarat University, India

INDIAN SOCIOLOGY

Michael J. Shanahan

Center for Advanced Study

in the Behavioral Sciences

Pennsylvania State

University

ADOLESCENCE

Constance L. Shehan

Department of Sociology

University of Florida

PARENTAL ROLES

Larry D. Shinn

Berea College

WORLD RELIGIONS

James F. Short

Department of Sociology

Washington State University

CRIMINAL AND

DELINQUENT

SUBCULTURES

Robert W. Shotola

Department of Sociology

Portland State University

SMALL GROUPS

William Simon

Department of Sociology

University of Houston

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

John H. Simpson

Department of Sociology

University of Toronto

RELIGION, POLITICS, AND WAR

Richard Mcgrath Skinner

University of Virginia

POLITICAL AND

GOVERNMENTAL

CORRUPTION

David Smith

University of Kansas

GENOCIDE

C.Matthew Snipp

Department of Sociology Stanford University

AMERICAN INDIAN STUDIES

David Snow

Department of Sociology

University of Arizona

CROWDS AND RIOTS

Subhash Sonnad

Department of Sociology

Western Michigan University

NONPARAMETRIC

STATISTICS

Kenneth I. Spenner

Department of Sociology

Duke University

PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Rodney Stark

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION

Lauri Steel

American Institutes for

Research

FAMILY SIZE

Sonia Stefanizzi

Department of Sociology

and Social Research

University of Milan-Bicocca

DATABANKS AND

DEPOSITORIES

Ardyth Stimson

Kean University

INTERPERSONAL

ATTRACTION

John Stimson

Sociology Department

William Paterson University

SOCIAL FORECASTING

Philip J. Stone

Department of Sociology

Harvard University

CONTENT ANALYSIS

David Strang

Center for Advanced Study

in the Behavioral Sciences

Cornell University

IMPERIALISM,

COLONIALISM, AND

DECOLONIZATION

Jeffrey J. Strange

Public Insight

CENSORSHIP AND THE

REGULATION OF

EXPRESSION

Raimondo Strassoldo

Dipartimento EST

University of Udine, Italy

NATIONAL BORDER

RELATIONS,

MANAGEMENT OF

Murray A. Straus

University of New

Hampshire

FAMILY VIOLENCE

Robin Stryker

Department of Sociology

University of Iowa

GOVERNMENT

REGULATION

Sheldon Stryker

Department of Sociology

Indiana University

IDENTITY THEORY SYMBOLIC INTERACTION

THEORY

Donald E. Stull

Department of Sociology

University of Akron

HEALTH AND THE LIFE COURSE

INTERGENERATIONAL RESOURCE TRANSFERS

J. Jill Suitor

Department of Sociology

Louisiana State University

INTERGENERATIONAL

RELATIONS

REMARRIAGE

Teresa A. Sullivan

Univesity of Texas at Austin

BANKRUPTCY AND CREDIT

Deborah A. Sullivan

Department of Sociology

Arizona State University

BIRTH AND DEATH RATES

Gene F. Summers

Department of Rural

Sociology

University of Wisconsin,

Madison

RURAL SOCIOLOGY

Marvin B. Sussman

INHERITANCE

Richard Swedberg

Department of Sociology

Stockholm University

ECONOMIC SOCIOLOGY

Szonja Szelenyi

Department of Sociology

Cornell University

SOCIALISM AND

COMMUNISM

Jacek Szmatka

Jagiellonian University,

Poland

POLISH AND EASTERN EUROPEAN SOCIOLOGY

Karl E. Taeuber

Department of Sociology

University of Wisconsin

CENSUS

Irving Tallman

Department of Sociology

Washington State University

FAMILY POLICY IN

WESTERN SOCIETIES

Marylee C. Taylor

Department of Sociology

Pennsylvania State

University

PREJUDICE

James E. Teele

Department of Sociology

Boston University

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY (AND JUVENILE CRIME)

WHITE COLLAR CRIME

Bruno Tellia

Dipartimento Economia,

Società, Territorio Universita di Udine, Italy

NEGOTIATION OF POWER

Ann R. Tickamyer

Department of Sociology

The Ohio University

MACROSOCIOLOGY INFORMAL ECONOMY, THE

Marta Tienda

Office of Population

Research

Princeton University

HISPANIC AMERICANS

Jackson Toby

Sociology Department

The State University of New

Jersey, Rutgers

CRIMINALIZATION OF

DEVIANCE

Donald J. Treiman

Department of Sociology

University of California at

Los Angeles

STATUS ATTAINMENT

Gaye Tuchman

Department of Sociology

University of Connecticut

FEMINIST THEORY

Nancy Brandon Tuma

Department of Sociology

Stanford University

SOCIAL DYNAMICS

Austin T. Turk

Department of Sociology

University of California,

Riverside

POLITICAL CRIME

Herman Turk

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Jonathan H. Turner

Department of Sociology

University of California,

Riverside

POSITIVISM

Ralph H. Turner

University of California, Los

Angeles

COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR

Bernard Valade

The Sorbonne

FRENCH SCHOOL OF

SOCIOLOGY, THE

Maurice D. Van Arsdol, Jr.

Institute of International

Studies

University of Southern

California and Monterey

CITIES

Pierre L. van den Berghe

Department of Sociology University of Washington

POLITICAL CORRECTNESS

Brenda J. Vander Mey

Department of Sociology

Clemson University

INCEST

Wayne J. Villemez

Department of Sociology

University of Connecticut

POVERTY

Carlos H. Waisman

Department of Sociology

University of California,

San Diego

LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES

Walter L. Wallace

Department of Sociology

Princeton University

METATHEORY

Marilyn E. Walsh

ORGANIZED CRIME

Carol A. B. Warren

Department of Sociology

University of Kansas

ETHNOGRAPHY

Susan Cotts Watkins

Department of Sociology

University of Pennsylvania

FERTILITY DETERMINANTS

Frederick D. Weil

Department of Sociology

Louisiana State University

POLITICAL PARTY SYSTEMS

Joseph G. Weis

Department of Sociology

University of Washington

PROBATION AND PAROLE

Jack Whalen

Xerox Palo Alto

Research Center

CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

Martin K. Whyte

Department of Sociology

George Washington

University

CHINA STUDIES

Marion C. Willetts

Department of Sociology

and Anthropology

Illinois State University

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IN MARRIAGE AND CLOSE RELATIONSHIPS

Robin M. Williams, Jr.

University of California,

Irvine and Cornell

University

AMERICAN SOCIETY

Charles Winick

The Graduate School and

University Center

City University of New York

PORNOGRAPHY

DRUG ABUSE

Halliman H. Winsborough

DEMOGRAPHY

Christopher Winship

Department of Sociology

Harvard University

SAMPLE SELECTION BIAS

Lynne Woehrle

Wilson College

GROUP CONFLICT

RESOLUTION

Alan Wolfe

Boston College

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

HUMAN NATURE

James R. Wood

Department of Sociology

Indiana University

RELIGIOUS

ORGANIZATIONS

James D. Wright

Department of Sociology

Tulane University

PUBLIC POLICY ANALYSIS

Robert Wuthnow

Department of Sociology

Princeton University

RELIGIOUS ORIENTATIONS

Grace J. Yoo

Asian-American Studies

Department

San Francisco State

University

INTERMARRIAGE

John H. Yost

Department of Psychology

John Carroll University

ROLE THEORY:

FOUNDATIONS,

EXTENSIONS, AND

APPLICATIONS

Rosalie F. Young

Department of Community

Medicine

Wayne State University

HEALTH PROMOTION AND HEALTH STATUS

Yih-Jin Young

Nassau Community College

EDUCATION AND

DEVELOPMENT

Morris Zelditch, Jr.

Department of Sociology

Stanford University

INTERPERSONAL POWER

Editor-in-Chief, Edgar F. Borgatta

Managing Editor, Rhonda J. V. Montgomery

Consulting Editor, Marie L. Borgatta

ADVISORY EDITORS

Duane Alwin

George W. Bohrnstedt

Karen S. Cook

Herbert L. Costner

Eileen Crimmons

William D’Antonio

Doris R. Entwistle

Amatai Etzioni

Archibald O. Haller

Maureen Hallinan

David Heise

Beth B. Hess

Charles Hirschman

Joan Huber

Yoshinori Kamo

David Knoke

Gladys E. Lang

Stanley Lieberson

Seymour Martin Lipset

J. Scott Long

Coral B. Marrett

David Mechanic

Margaret Mooney Marini

Peter V. Marsden

Douglas S. Massey

Jill Quadagno

Matilda White Riley

Pepper Schwartz

William H. Sewell

James F. Short, Jr.

Teresa A. Sullivan

James Teele

Marta Tienda

Nancy B. Tuma

Robin M. Williams, Jr.

INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY EDITORS

Vaneeta D’Andrea (Great Britain)

Mattei Dogan (France)

Alberto Gasperini (Italy)

Carl-Gunner Janson (Scandanavia)

Igor S. Kon (Soviet)

Judah Matra (Israel)

Georges Sabagh (Middle East)

Masamichi Sasaki (Japan)

Jacek Szmatka (Poland, Eastern Europe)

Vimal Shah (India)

ABORTION

See Family Planning; Pregnancy and Pregnancy

Termination.

ACCULTURATION

See Ethnicity.

ADDICTION

See Alcohol; Drug Abuse.

ADOLESCENCE

Recognition of the life stage between childhood and adulthood as a subject of modern scientific inquiry began in the early twentieth century with the publication of Antonio Marro’s La Puberta

(1898) and G. Stanley Hall’s highly influential compendium Adolescence (1904). Although Hall’s book represented an initial effort to describe adolescence, it nevertheless resonated with themes already familiar among scholars and the public. In Europe, romantic conceptions of a sexually charged, troubled youth (e.g., in Rousseau’s Émile) circulated among the socially concerned. In America, an established tradition of cautionary literature emphasized the impressionable nature of young people and their vulnerability to sin (e.g., in the essays and sermons of Cotton Mather). Hall incorporated many of these ideas into a Darwinian framework to conjure an ‘‘adolescence’’ recognizable to

his readers (Ross 1972). Although the work is viewed as a curious and difficult amalgam today, it nevertheless emphasized themes that continue to shape the study of youth.

Hall viewed adolescence through the lens of Ernst Haeckel’s biogenetic principle, which holds that the human life span recapitulates the phases of human biological and social evolution (Gould 1977). Hall maintained that late childhood corresponds to a period of peaceful savagery in the distant past, whereas adolescence represents a ‘‘neo-atavistic’’ period of migration into a challenging environment, which prompted physical, social, and psychological conflict and growth. This characterization of the adolescent, as troubled by all-encompassing turmoil, was contested early in the twentieth century by prominent behavioral scientists such as Edwin Thorndike (1917) and has been repeatedly challenged since then, perhaps most famously by Margaret Mead’s Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) (but see Freeman 1983; Côté

1994). Likewise, sociologists such as Robert and Helen Lynd (1929) and August Hollingshead (1949) found little evidence of pervasive trouble among the youth of Middletown or Elmtown. Contemporary behavioral scientists take a more moderate view than Hall’s, depicting adolescence as a time of both change and continuity (e.g., Douvan and Adelson 1966). Nevertheless, the study of adolescence has been indelibly marked by the ‘‘storm and stress’’ motif.

Hall also maintained that adolescents are highly responsive to adult guidance. Drawing on work by

Edward Cope, a leading American proponent of the biogenetic principle, he believed that the influence of the environment in producing acquired characteristics that were then transmissible by heredity was greatest during adolescence. The implication of this Lamarckian view was momentous: The future development of the human race depended on improvements in the adolescent (Hall 1904, v. 1, p. 50). Indeed, as a leader of the Child Study Movement, Hall forcefully argued for collaborative efforts between pedagogy and the emerging discipline of psychology, creating schools that push adolescents to their physical and mental limits, and effect the ‘‘moral rejuvenation’’ of youth, society, and indeed the human race. A view of adolescence as a source of manifold revitalization was especially appealing to Hall’s readership, a Gilded Age middle class weary from concern over urbanization and the perceived cultural and eugenic threats posed by large-scale immigration into the United States (Kett 1977; Ross 1972). The view that adults can constructively regulate the socialization of youth is reflected in continuing scientific and public interest in the settings of youth (e.g., the workplace) and their implications for development.

Hall’s Adolescence was an interdisciplinary work, and drew from a wide range of sources, including writings by early sociologists such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Gustave Le Bon, and

Adolphe Quételet. The interdisciplinary study of youth remains an important theme, with many fields recognizing adolescence as a significant area of inquiry, including psychology (Petersen 1988), history (Modell and Goodman 1990), and anthropology (Schlegel and Barry 1991). Yet each discipline has its unique presuppositions and focal points. Psychologists tend to focus on adolescents’ cognitive, motivational, and emotional capacities; their maturation (often along universalistic lines, as one finds in the work of Piaget and Erikson), their interrelationships, and how they are shaped by experiences in proximal settings, including the family, peer group, school, and workplace. Anthropologists and historians focus on the range of experiences that adolescence encompasses across cultures and through historical time: the existence

of the adolescent life phase, its distinctive social and cultural traditions, and interrelationships among youth, other age groups, and social institutions.

Sociological studies of adolescence often overlap with these concerns, reflecting interests in the social settings of youth and their implications for the self, as well as variability in this stage of life across societies and through historical time. Yet sociologists have also maintained a unique view by drawing on the life course paradigm as an analytic framework. The life course focuses on age-graded roles, opportunities, and constraints; how these differ through historical time, and how they shape the biography. The analytic focus is on the structural complexity and diversity of social settings through time and place, as well as the plasticity of humans in these settings (Dannefer 1984).

The remainder of this entry will focus on three distinctive features of adolescence as viewed from a life-course perspective (see Table 1). The first feature concerns adolescence as a life phase in historical perspective: Has adolescence been a recognized part of the life course through historical time? And how have the factors that mark the transition both into and out of adolescence changed? Implicit in the concept of markers that distinguish adolescence from childhood and adulthood is the rate of movement from one phase to the next.

Accordingly, the second feature concerns how quickly young people move through the adolescent role set and the social circumstances that promote an accelerated life course.

The third feature focuses on the central role of institutionalized pathways through adolescence. In this context, pathways refer to routes from childlike dependence on the family of origin to the autonomies of adulthood. At the same time, individuals actively construct their lives. Within the structured pathways from childhood to adulthood, how do adolescents actively shape their biographies? Throughout this essay, social historical accounts are presented to underscore the highly variable nature of adolescence in the last two centuries; in turn, these accounts are juxtaposed with current sociological efforts to understand the social worlds of youth. The entry concludes by considering the dual role of sociologists in the study of adolescence: To contribute to substantive debates about the place of youth in society, but

Table 1

also to identify how the contours of these debates are themselves the products of social forces.

Two additional features of adolescence are not covered in this entry. One involves the social relationships of youth, a subject that has been examined from several vantage points. Considerable attention has been devoted to the ‘‘sociometric’’ properties of peer relationships, mapping out affiliations among young people in high schools (see

Hallinan and Smith, 1989 for a contribution to this tradition). Relatedly, sociologists have also examined the typical personalities, behavioral patterns, and group identities of youth as they reflect responses to the social organization of the high school and this phase of life (e.g., Matza 1964).

Sociologists have also focused on youth and their intergenerational relationships: How youth are integrated into adult society (for example, see Coleman 1994), how they and their parents interrelate (for a useful review, see Dornbusch 1989), and how youth serve as agents of social change (for

a classic statement, see Mannheim 1928/1952). The second feature is juvenile delinquency (see

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY).

ADOLESCENCE AS A LIFE PHASE

Each phase of life reflects social norms and institutional constraints and serves as a principal source of identity for the individual by specifying appropriate behaviors and roles (Elder 1980). The study of adolescence as a life phase requires that it be situated in the life course, that its distinctive features be identified in comparison to both childhood and adulthood. Indeed, adolescence is frequently depicted as a transitional period of semiautonomy, reflecting movement from the complete dependence of children on their parents to the establishment of one’s own livelihood and family in adulthood (e.g., Kett 1974; Katz 1979; Gillis 1974). Yet the study of adolescence as a life phase also requires that it be situated in history,