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Introduction
Although inflammation is one of nature’s protective defence
mechanisms against injury and trauma, an enduring
inflammatory response is detrimental as it perpetrates the
development of a chronically painful and harmful condition.
e wisdom of taking anti-inflammatory agents in order to
abort this unfavourable process can be found in medical texts
many centuries old. is concept is further strengthened
by recent research the roles of anti-inflammatory agents in
preventive analgesia.
History
Salicylate is found in the bark of the willow tree and was
used to treat rheumatism and fever 3,500 years ago. e first
documentation of salicylate use was made in the Materia
Medica Libri Quinque of Dioscorides, the first-century Greek
physician, who recommended willow bark as a poultice
for treating inflammation. e bark was dried, pulverised
and dispersed into tea, beer or water as a drink to produce
its therapeutic effect [84]. After Dioscorides, many medical
authorities hailed willow bark for its anti-helmintic, anti-
inflammatory, antipyretic and haemostatic properties. In 1860,
Hermann Kolbe synthesised salicylic acid, which was cheaper
than extracting it from the plant source, and this ultimately
led to a diminished commercial demand for crude willow bark
preparations. e distinct bitter taste of salicylate further drove
Felix Hoffman in Germany to produce, 100 years ago, the more
palatable acetylsalicylic acid, commonly known as aspirin.
Aspirin is probably the oldest medication in history. It has
attracted a lot of attention: even astronauts took aspirin to
the moon and were recorded in the “Guinness Book of
NSAIDs, COX-2 Inhibitors and
Paracetamol
22
Libby Ha Yun LEE
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
MECHANISMS OF ACTION
Arachidonic acid cascade
Actions of NSAIDs
BIOCHEMICAL SELECTIVITY
CLINICAL APPLIC
ATION
Acute pain management
Chronic pain management
Cancer pain management
SIDE EFFECTS
Effect on platelets
Cardiovascular effect
Gastrointestinal effect
Renal effect
Effect on asthma
Drug Interactions
FUTURE OF NSAIDs
PARACETAMOL OVERVIEW
Acute and chronic pain
management
Adverse effects
Toxicity from overdose
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
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368 Libby Ha Yun LEE
World Records”. Spanish philosopher Jose Ortega
y Gasset dubbed the 20th century as “the age of
aspirin”. Now aspirin and aspirin-like drugs,
namely non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), remain some of the most popular over-
the-counter drugs in many countries of the world.
In the United States, 42% of women below age 51
years were taking NSAIDs more than once weekly,
and 25% took aspirin for more than 6 days a week
[16]. Despite their common usage, NSAIDs are
associated with significant side effects which have
important implications for those taking them.
Mechanisms of Action
Arachidonic acid cascade
Cyclo-oxygenases
In response to various stimuli, arachidonic acid is
released from the phospholipids in cell membranes, a
process catalysed by phospholipase A2. Arachidonic
acid is the precursor for the synthesis of various
eicosanoids [76], such as prostanoids, leukotrienes
and epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EETs), and is
mediated through cyclo-oxygenase, lipoxygenase
and cytochrome-450 pathways respectively. (See
Fig. 22.01 on p. 378.)
In the 1960s, Vane first discovered that pain,
redness and swelling resulting from chemical
and mechanical stimulation were secondary to
prostaglandin production. is achievement
ultimately earned the scientist both the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1982) and a
knighthood. Vane found that aspirin, salicylates
and NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by
blocking the cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes
giving rise to an anti-inflammatory property [84].
Different isoenzymes of COX were not discovered
until the 1990s. Needleman pioneered the concept
of constitutional (cyclo-oxygenase-1, COX-1) and
inducible (cyclo-oxygenase-2, COX-2) forms of
COX enzymes [53]. is concept had a huge impact
on later pharmaceutical development and opened a
window for future research on inflammation and
pain.
e COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes are membrane-
associated proteins. ey have totally distinctive
structures, although both consist of a long narrow
channel and a hairpin bend. e amino acid
sequence of their complementary DNA only shows
60% homology [61]. ey have similar active sites
for their natural substrate and binding sites for
NSAIDs, although the former of COX-2 is larger.
Cyclo-oxygenase-1 can be found in most cells, such
as endothelium, gastrointestinal tract and platelets.
It is thought to have a house-keeping role as the
prostanoids it produces are involved in normal
physiological processes. For example, prostacyclin
and PGE2 in the gastrointestinal tract reduce
gastric acid secretion, produce a vasodilatory effect
in the gastric mucosa, stimulate mucus production
serving as a protective barrier and also promote
duodenal bicarbonate formation [88]. In kidneys,
PGE2, PGD2 and prostacyclin are generated to
maintain and regulate renal blood flow, reduce
vascular resistance, dilate renal vascular beds and
enhance organ perfusion [87]. e inhibition of
COX-1 may jeopardise gastric protection and
impair renal perfusion.
On the other hand, the level of COX-2 is normally
very low in cells, although it can be found in brain,
testes, kidney and the trachea [27]. Pro-inflammatory
cytokines and mitogens, such as interleukins (IL)-
1 belta (IL-1 beta), interferon gamma and tumour
necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), induce COX-2
expression [1] in pathological processes including
pain, inflammation, fever, carcinogenesis, tumour
invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis [64, 69]. It
can be up-regulated 10- to 20-fold of its normal
level in these circumstances. is up-regulation
can also be found in chondrocytes [14], osteoblasts
and synovial microvessel endothelial cells in
joint inflammation. On the other hand, COX-
2 expression is reduced in the presence of anti-
inflammatory cytokines IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13, as
well as dexamethasone [22].
However, this mechanism of action seems to be
too simple to explain all the observed physiological
responses. ere is growing evidence to show
that COX-2 is also involved in maintaining body
function while COX-1 can be induced at sites of
inflammation [6]. For instance, COX-2 is present
constitutively in renal and vascular endothelium
and COX-1 is slightly (2–4-fold) up-regulated in
response to hormones or growth factors [17].
Nonetheless, the discovery of COX-2 did
open a channel for studying the mystery of the
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NSAIDs, COX-2 Inhibitors and Paracetamol 369
inflammatory response. More recent and puzzling
data show that COX-2 is induced at the resolution
of an inflammatory event when anti-inflammatory
PGD2 and PGF2, but not pro-inflammatory
PGE2, are produced. Any COX-2 inhibitor
administered at this juncture may preserve the
inflammation [6].
Lipoxygenase
It is also important to understand the chemical
reaction via the lipoxygenase pathway in the
arachidonic acid cascade. Any inhibition of cyclo-
oxygenase will shift the reaction to the lipoxygenase
arm and cause an increase in production of
leukotrienes.
Leukotrienes (LTs) are potent mediators which
are actively involved in the inflammatory response
and are produced via the lipoxygenase pathway
of the arachidonic acid cascade. e enzyme 5-
lipoxygenase is found in myeloid cells, such as
polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages,
eosinophils, mast cells, monocytes, basophils and
B lymphocytes. It plays a key role in the first step of
the reaction to form 5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic
acid (5-HPETE), which is the precursor for a wide
range of LTs like LTA4, LTB4, LTC4 and LTD4 and
is normally present in cytoplasm. When there is an
increase in intra-cellular calcium, the enzyme will
translocate itself to the cell membrane and link to the
transmembrane protein, 5-lipoxygenase activating
protein [19]. It has also been shown that there is an
association between coronary vasoconstriction and
elevated 5-lipoxygenase activity in the heart in a rat
model [30]. Any stimulation of the 5-lipoxygenase
pathway might cause coronary vasoconstriction
and potential cardiovascular adverse events.
e enzyme 12-lipoxygenase catalyses the
formation of 12-HPETE and is found in human
platelets, erythroleukemia cells and endothelial
cells in the umbilical vein. While, 15-lipoxygenase
catalyses the biosynthesis of 15-HPETE, which is
subsequently converted to lipoxins by neutrophils.
Actions of NSAIDs
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are cyclo-
oxygenase inhibitors. Different configurations of
drugs allow them to work non-selectively on both
COX-1 and COX-2, preferentially on COX-2 or
selectively on COX-2.
Traditionally, NSAIDs are thought to work
at a peripheral level, by inhibiting peripheral
prostaglandin synthesis in inflamed tissue, to exert
their analgesic effect [25, 53]. However there is
increasing evidence to show that their analgesic
effect depends on COX inhibition in the central
nervous system [51]. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 induction
within spinal cord is thought to play an important
role in central sensitisation leading to chronic pain
syndromes. e acute anti-hyperalgesic action of
NSAIDs has been shown to be mediated by the
inhibition of COX-2 [89]. In human volunteers, the
COX-2 inhibitors reduce secondary hyperalgesia
in experimental pain and thus appear to reduce
central sensitisation [38].
Biochemical Selectivity
Owing to the differences in their structures,
different NSAIDs have different selectivity towards
COX-1 and COX-2. e ratio of COX-2 to COX-
1 activity depends on the method of measurement.
ere are in vitro and in vivo assays to determine
the biochemical selectivity of various NSAIDs. It
is more clinically relevant when the selectivity is
determined by drug-enzyme interaction in whole
blood assays [59]. romboxane B2 generated in
clotting whole blood is a validated measure for
COX-1 activity, while PGE2 production after
incubation of whole blood with lipopolysaccharide
is used for COX-2. ose with more COX-2
selectivity are labelled as a COX-2 inhibitors and
those with less are considered to be non-selective
NSAIDs (Table 22.01).
Table 22.01 COX-2/COX-1 selectivity ratios [59]
Drug COX-2/COX-1
selectivity ratios
Ibuprofen 0.2
Indomethacin 0.4
Meloxicam 2
Etodolac 2.4
Diclofenac 3
Celecoxib 7.6
Valdecoxib 30
Rofecoxib 35
Etoricoxib 106
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