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ethnonanomedicine (36). The usefulness of nanomedicine in the coming years necessi-
tates rigorous studies to be carried out for both administration and manufacturing to
ensure that safety guidelines are met.
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22 Chapter 1 Introductory concepts: fundamentals of metal complexes – an overview
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Chapter 2
Metal-based therapies in alternative
and traditional system
Traditional medicines are, in fact, an integral part of the medical system and therapy
owing to their reliability, efficiency and cost-cutting approach. Not only this, their ap-
plication and use have been time-tested and have become part of the culture in many
parts of the world. The fact that although rigorous research on their standardization
and regulations is being done, it even warrants a missionary approach to establish
and educate ourselves about the possible exploration of their benefits vis-à-vis harms.
Simply put, making it a complete system rather than complementary becomes the re-
sponsibility of all involved in the field of human health. Well-established alternative
systems of medicine include
1. Ayurveda
2. Chinese system
3. Tibetan system
4. Naturopathy
5. Unani
6. Siddha
Since the chapter is dedicated to metallomedicines, the major systems that will be in-
cluded are Ayurveda, the Chinese system and the Tibetan system as part of this.
2.1 Ayurveda
The Ayurvedic system is based on the fundamental principle that the entire universe
is composed of five elements: Vayu (Air), Jala (Water), Akash (Space), Prithvi (Earth)
and Teja (Fire). They are called Panch Mahabhoota in Ayurveda. These Panch Mahab-
hootas form the three humors of the human body with their varying combinations
and are called Tridoshas. These Tridoshas are named Vata dosha, Pitta dosha and
Kapha dosha. These three Tridoshas regulate the basic physiological functions of the
body. They have been further classified into constituents like seven tissues (Sapta
dhatu), tissue fluids (Rasa), fat and connective tissues (Meda), blood (Rakta), bones
(Asthi), marrow (Majja), semen (Shukra) and three excreta (Malas): feces (Purisha),
urine (Mutra) and sweat (Sweda).
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The tridoshas have functional control as Figure 2.1:
In Ayurvedic princ iples, a proper balance between these tridoshas has to be main-
tained in a healthy state. In basic form, the treatment strategy in a holistic way is the
way Ayurveda follows. The term Ashtanga Ayurveda includes internal medicine
(Kaya chikitsa), Bhoot vidya (treatment of psychological disorders), Kaumar Bhritya
(pediatric treatment), Rasayana (study of geriatrics), Vaji Karana (treatment through
aphrodisiacs and eugenics), Shalya (surgical treatment), Shalakaya (otorhinological
and ophthalmological treatment) and finally Agadotantra (toxicological studies) [1].
However, the global acceptance of Ayurveda is based on medicines derived from
herbs, minerals, as well as animal-based products.
In order to understand the perspective of Ayurveda, many interesting studies
have been undertaken. On this basis, the therapeutic principles of Ayurveda focus on
prakriti and tridoshas. Prakriti means that every individual has a unique constitution,
which would determine the characteristic response of each individual to medications,
including environmental factors, as well as diet (Ahar) [2,3]. A recently emerging field
called Ayurgenomics has gained attention to correlate genomics with Ayurveda [4].
The universal presence of metals and their benefits has been a matter of importance
in all ancient systems including Ayurveda. There have been numerous studies on the
bioinorganic mechanism, toxicity and benefits of metal-based Bhasmas, and it can be
observed that they have been globally accepted. The following section describes this
in detail.
Vata
dosha
(catabolism control)
Electrolyte balance
Cellular transport
Elimination of waste products
Pitta
dosha
(metabolism conrol)
Optic nurve condition
Body temprature
Hunger and thirst
Kapha
(Anabolism control)
Lubrication to joints
Fig 2.1: Tridoshas and their functional control.
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2.1.1 Metal-based therapy in the system
Use of metals for therapeutic applications is a very old concept and consists of Bhasma
as an authentic medicine. The Bhasma is prepared through a very specific process de-
fined as Shodhan, which is the burning of metals. On the other hand, attention is being
paid to metal-accumulating plants due to their medicinal applications. However, re-
searchers are paying attention to the associated metal toxicity on human health. Due
to the accumulation of heavy metals in soils, plants are the most vital carriers for
transfer. Reported uptake of heavy metals has caused a number of diseases in human
beings [5, 6]. The Ayurvedic system has a unique feature of using metallic preparations
in healthcare. For this, processed metals called Bhasmas of various metals, including
mercury, gold, lead, zinc, copper, etc., are used for different diseases. The question of
toxicity, as skeptically raised by the modern medicinal system, is answered by the
claim that during this highly complex preparation method, the preparations are detox-
ified. Charak Samhita and Sushruta Samhita describe authentic details of metallic
preparation, the processing techniques and therapeutic applications.
2.1.2 Bhasmas
Metal-based Ayurvedic drugs are prepared by different methods of repeated incinera-
tion of metal with herbal extracts or juice. This process is called bhasmikaran. The
metals obtained after this process are made into a coarse powder by repeated ham-
mering. Finally, these are subjected to purification or Shodhana. In the next step,
these purified materials are further incinerated (Marana) and subsequently levigated
(Bhavana) with a particular liquid for a specified time. Pellets (Chakrikas) are pre-
pared from this levigated mass or dough, followed by keeping them in earthen cruci-
bles. The crucibles are placed one over the other as a lid, and the junction is sealed
using mud-smeared cloth. This assembly is called Sarva Samputam, which is heated
in a traditional Puta or electric muffle fu rnace. Burning is continued for a specific
time, and finally, when cooled, the material is taken out. This procedure is repeated
for a particular time to yield prepared Bhasma (incinerated metal). Archery and rasa-
chikitsa (Ayurvedic) faded by AD 1800 as metallurgical developments were not incor-
porated into texts [7] after this period. Yet, the specific equipment and processes in
material science during this period were of utmost scientific merit. Without going
much into the details of origin and development, various Bhasmas in the Ayurvedic
system are being given to highlight metal-based drugs in the alternative Indian system
of medicine. Some of the important Bhasmas are included in the next section.
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2.1.3 Svarna Bhasma (gold)
Gold in its pure form is reddish-yellow in color. Pure gold, without any impurities, is
used in medicine. Purification in this medicinal system is done by making it red hot in
a strong flame of fire. After keeping it for a while in the flame, it is immersed in til
(sesame) oil [8]. After cooling, it is taken out again, and the same process is repeated
seven times in the same way. As described, [9] these gold leaves are heated and im-
mersed seven times in each of butter milk, cow’s urine, vinegar and a decoction of
Kulattha (Dolichos biflorus Linn.). Finally, these leaves of gold are washed with water
and used for marana. It is important to mention that to make metal therapeutically
useful, Bhasmas are made, and marana is one step that improves the therapeutic effi-
cacy of gold. In marana, purified gold is mixed with equal quantities of arsenic
(malla) and triturated in a mortar and pestle with the addition of a decoction of Bau-
hinia variegata Linn. (Kāncanara) for 7 days. Further, for 7 more days, it is triturated
with the juice of Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum Linn.). After this, small round, flat cakes are
madefromthispasteanddriedinthesun.Thesecakesarethenkeptinsidetwo
earthen plates with the joints sealed by wrapping with seven layers of mud-smeared
cloth. This is called Sarva samputa (enclosu re with two earthen plates). It is then
dried in the sun and cooked. The process is called laghu puta, where the covering in
this step is with cow dung cake and igniting. Finally, when it becomes cold, the
earthen plates are carefully removed from the ash of the cow-dung cake, transferring
the cakes to a mortar and pestle. Again, ¼ quantity of arsenic is added, followed by
triturating and adding Kāncanara and tulsi juice for 7n days. The process is repeated
eight more times. In the next cooking or putas, the number of cow dung cakes is grad-
ually increased so that at the end of 10 such processes, Bhasma is obtained as a cal-
cined powder of gold, which is pink in color. This is stored in clean and dry glass
bottles.
2.1.4 Organoleptic characteristics of Svarna Bhasma and composition
Color – dark brown
Touch – fine
Tasteless
Composition
Sulfur (<3.33% w/w)
Ca (<1.625% w/w)
Potassium (<0.370% w/w)
Sulfate (<3.00% w/w)
Copper (<17.2% w/w)
Silica (<3.8% w/w)
Acid insoluble ash (21.20–31.18% w/w)
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2.1.5 Therapeutic indications
As per Ayurvedic literature, Svarna Bhasma is indicated in tuberculosis (Yakshma),
schizophrenia (Unmada), fever (Jwara), grief (Shoka), Anemia (Pandu), dyspnea (Shwasa),
cough (Kasa), worm infection (Krimi), anorexia or loss of appetite (Aruchi), ophthalmic
disorders (Chakshuroga) as well as poisoning conditions (Visha).
2.1.6 Testing of Bhasma
In traditional systems, Bhasma in general is tested using these three methods:
(i) Floating in water (Vāritartva), a small amount of Bhasma, properly prepared, is
sprinkled in water. It should not sink but float on the surface of the water.
(ii) Filling the crevices of fingers. When a small quantity of gold or any other Bhasma
is rubbed between two fingers, it will not enter into the crevices of the fingertips,
as there must not be any coarse particles left. This test is called Rekha Purnatva.
(iii) Nonrevivability test (Apurnbhavatva): This test involves exposing gold Bhasma to
strong fire with the addition of drugs collectively called mitra pancka (ghee, clari-
fied butter), gunja (Abrus precatorius Linn.), honey, borax and guggulu (Commi-
phora mukul Engl). These are drugs that reduce the melting point of any metal
under normal conditions. This process should turn gold Bhasma back to metallic
gold. However, if the BBhasma is properly prepared, despite the strong heat, it
remains unchanged. The test is named Apurnbhavatva.
2.1.7 Rajata (silver) Bhasma
Silver is purified by heating over fire and then immersing it in liquids, similar to the
proceduredonewithgold.Afterthisprocedure, silver leaves are heated and im-
mersed in the juice of agastya (Sesbania grandiflora Pers) leaves, and the process is
repeated three times.
2.1.7.1 Mãrana
The purified leaves of silver are cut into pieces and mixed with an equal quantity of
purified mercury, making a fine amalgam. An equal quantity of pu rified sulfur and
orpiment, duly purified (As
2
S
3
), are now added. Then, this mixture is triturated for
one day by adding the juice of Kumari (Aloe barbadensis Mill.). Small round and flat
cakes, called cakrikas, of about 1 in. in diameter are made from the above paste and
dried in the sun. These are put in Sarva Samputa (two earthen plates) sealed with lay-
ered mud-smeared cloth having seven layers and kept for drying in the sun. This is
consequently cooked in laghu puta. After repeating this process seven times, it is tritu-
2.1 Ayurveda 27
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rated in a mortar and pestle for 1 h and kept in dry glass bottles. The color of this
Bhasma is black.
2.1.7.1.1 Properties
Silver Bhasma is an astringent, sour in taste and has a cooling effect. It is vipaka
(emerged taste after digestion as well as during metabolism) and a laxative. It allevi-
ates Vata and Kapha.
2.1.7.1.2 Therapeutic uses
Rajata Bhasma is useful in diabetes (Prameha), vitiligo (Switra), tuberculosis (Yakshma),
anemia (Pandu), dyspnea (Shwasa), cough (Kasa), emaciation (Shosha) and poisoning
(Visha).
2.1.8 Copper (tamra) Bhasma
Thin leaves of copper are heated over the flame of fire and, as usual, immersed seven
times in each of the following: til (sesame) oil, buttermilk, cow’s urine, vinegar (kanji)
and a decoction of kulattha (Dolichos biflorus Linn.). After this, a paste is prepared by
triturating rock salt with the milky latex of arka (Calotropis gigantea R. Br. ex Ait.).
The copper leaves are smeared with this paste, consequently heated on fire and im-
mersed into the juice of nirgundi (Vitex negundo Linn.). The process is repeated seven
times [10].
2.1.8.1 Marana
In this step, purified mercury and sulfur in equ al quantity to copper (purified as
above) are made into kajjati (a fine black powder like collyrium) through trituration
in a p estle and mortar, repeated using lemon juice. Finally, after drying in the s un,
the leaves are kept inside two earthen pots, whose joints are sealed with mud-
smeared cloth and dried in the sun. These sealed earthen pots are kept inside gaja
puta and cooked. After cooling, the leaves are carefully removed from the earthen
pots, and half the quantity of sulfur is added and triturated with lemon juice. Finally,
after making round flat cakes from this material and sun-drying them, they are again
cooked in gaja puta for three more times. This turns copper into black-colored Tamra
Bhasma.
2.1.8.1.1 Properties
Copper Bhasma is astringent and bitter in taste and is sweet in vipaka (taste that
emerges during metabolism and after digestion). It alleviates pitta and kapha.
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2.1.8.1.2 Therapeutic indications
As per the Ayurveda system, it is indicated in the following therapies:
Fever (Jwara)
Anemia (Pandu)
Cough (Kasa)
Worms (Krimi)
Emaciation (Kshaya)
Liver orders (Yakrita Roga)
Ascites (Udar roga)
Piles (Arsha)
Abdominal tumors (Gulma)
Spasmodic pain (Shula)
Acidity (Amla pitta)
2.1.9 Lauha Bhasma (iron)
Thin leaves of iron are heated over a flame, followed by immersion in sesame oil, but-
ter milk, cow’s urine, kanji (a type of vinegar) and a decoction of Kulattha (Dolichos
biflorus Linn.) seven times. After purification, as with other metals, it is processed
using a special method involving triphala (a collective name for Terminalia chebula
Retz, Terminalia belerica Roxb and Emblica officinalis Gaertn), taken in equal quanti-
ties and made into a powder, about 750 g. Adding four times the amount of water and
reducing it to one-fourth in the next step, the decoction is filtered. Now, purified iron
chips are immersed in these decoctions and heated seven times. This special method
purifies the iron. In the next step, to improve its therapeutic usefulness, the chips are
put into an earthen jar, immersed in cow urine and covered with an iron plate to sun
dry until the cow urine dries up. This process is continued for 1 month. Further, these
iron chips are impregnated with the decoction of triphala and the juice of Aloe barba-
densis Miller or Kumari. After 3 months, these chips become fragile. These chips are
washed with water and triturated in a pestle and mortar to obtain Bhasma of iron.
2.1.9.1 Marana
The purified powder obtained above is further triturated for 3 days with cow’s urine.
This paste is made into small cakes, and the entire process is done as it is done for
other Bhasmas.
2.1.9.1.1 Properties
It has a sweet-bitter taste, sweet in vipaka, heavy, unctuous and a promoter of eye
sight. It alleviates Kapha and Pitta.
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2.1.10 Lead (Naga) Bhasma
Naga Bhasma is processed by first purifying it through sublimation and melting in an
iron ladle, followed by pouring it into a vessel containing lim e water (Curnodaka),
which is then decocted and filtered [11]. This process is repeated seven times with
fresh lime water each time. In the first puta or step, this purified lead is melted with
an equal amount of manahsila (As
2
S
2
) and a s mall amount of Chichri (Plectranthus
cuesta L. Her.), until it becomes a dry powder. Regarding Chichri, the herb’s roots,
stem, leaves, flower and fruits are used. After due cooling, this powder is triturated
with the juice of vaasa (Adhatoda vasica Nees) leaves and small pellets from this ma-
terial are made and left to dry in the shade. Finally, the dried pellets are packed air-
tight in two earthen pots sealed with cloth dipped in mud (sharva samput). This as-
sembly is heated in aerobic conditions. The sample obtained is used for the next puta
for 59 more times using 1/20th proportion of As
2
S
2
, finally obtaining Naga Bhasma.
2.1.10.1 Properties
Bhasma of lead is sweet in taste, hot in potency, unctuous, a stimulant of digestion as
well as metabolism, and alleviates Vayu.
2.1.10.2 Therapeutic application
It is indicated in diabetes (Prameha), rheumatoid arthritis (Amavata), tetanus (Dha-
nurvata) and in waterborne diseases (Sarva Udaka Dosha).
2.1.11 Yashada Bhasma (Zinc Bhasma)
Zinc metal is cut into small pieces, heated over a flame, and conceptually immersed
seven times into sesame oil, butter milk, cow’s urine and Kanji (a type of vinegar).
The next step involves a decoction of Kulattha (Dolichos biflorus Linn.). This is a gen-
eral method used for preparing all bhasmas. After this, a special method for the puri-
fication of zinc is followed. The material is kept in an iron spoon and melted over a
fire. Further, cow’s urine is kept in a metal jar. The jar has a covered mouth with a
hole in the center of the plate, through which the melted zinc is poured. This process
is repeated 21 times, and finally, the zinc is washed with water and dried.
2.1.11.1 Marana
Zinc is melted in an iron pan, to which equal quantities of the powder of bhanga (Can-
nabis sativa Linn.) and poppy pods should be added in small quantities. While adding
this powder, the metal is rubbed with the help of a strong iron spoon. When all the
metal reduces to ash, another iron plate is put to cover this pan. Following this, strong
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