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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5253_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Table A1. Recommendations concerning publicity.
Topic
Explanation
Examples of statements
considered reasonable
Examples of statements to
avoid as potentially
misleading
Causes of
dyslexia or
reading
difficulties
Many factors can contribute to dyslexic difficulties, and the
main causal factor is believed to be a phonological deficit.
This is unlikely to respond to visual treatments. Therefore, if
an ECP discovers a visual problem in a dyslexic person, they
are unlikely to ‘cure’ dyslexia.
We treat visual problems that
can co-occur with dyslexia.
We treat dyslexia.
Describing visual interventions
as dyslexia treatment, or
treatment for dyslexia.
Testing for
dyslexia
Dyslexia is diagnosed by certified specialist teachers,
assessors, or educational psychologists specialising in SpLD
registered with the Health Care Practitioners Council (HCPC).
ECPs are not qualified to diagnose dyslexia.
We test for visual problems
that may affect reading.
Book an appointment for a
special investigation of visual
problems relevant to reading.
Book a dyslexia appointment.
Book a dyslexia test.
Book a dyslexia and vision
assessment.
We run a dyslexia clinic.
We test for dyslexia.
We test for dyslexia glasses.
Appendices
363
Visual
dyslexia
The term “visual dyslexia” has been used variously with
completely different meanings (Chapter 1). The term has no
specific meaning and could lead the public to think that there
is a particular type of dyslexia that ECPs treat. There is no
good evidence for such a view.
Some people with dyslexia
have visual problems.
We specialise in visual dyslexia.
We treat visual dyslexia.
Anything that mentions “visual
dyslexia”.
We are dyslexia-specialist
opticians.
Treating
dyslexia
ECPs often measure reading with the Wilkins Rate of Reading
Test (WRRT), which was designed to assess visual factors that
may influence reading and to be relatively unaffected by
reading skill.
Education professionals measure reading ability with
standardised tests designed to assess underlying reading
skills, including decoding, comprehension and accuracy as
well as reading rate, using passages of text requiring
understanding.
The WRRT uses nonsense text but is useful for ECPs to assess
the effect of optometric interventions. It is not designed to
If children have visual
problems, treatment of these
problems can help the child to
read more comfortably and
may improve their perception
of text. This may help them to
benefit from teaching and
contribute to an improvement
in reading performance.
Treatment of visual problems
(e.g., spectacles, vision therapy,
coloured filters) will improve
reading or reading age.
Coloured filters treat dyslexia.
Spectacles treat dyslexia.
Vision therapy treats dyslexia.
Appendices
364
predict changes in educational tests of reading performance.
Colour &
treating
dyslexia
Coloured filters alleviate visual stress. The best estimate is
that visual stress affects fewer than one in five people with
dyslexia (Chapter 9).
The number of dyslexic children who benefit from other
optometric interventions (e.g., bifocals, prisms, vision
therapy) is likely to be even smaller (Chapters 2 and 3).
We may prescribe glasses in
cases where a visual problem
is present.
Coloured glasses may alleviate
visual stress.
Fewer than one in five people
with dyslexia may have visual
stress and find coloured
glasses helpful.
Glasses treat dyslexia.
Anything that mentions “dyslexia
glasses” or “dyslexia
overlays/lenses”.
Claims that a higher proportion
than 1 in 5 dyslexics may be
helped by colour.
Visual
symptoms
Research indicates visual symptoms are more common in
dyslexia, but only affect a minority of children with dyslexia
(Chapter 3). Therefore, when visual symptoms are present
these do not indicate that a person has dyslexia.
We treat visual symptoms.
Visual symptoms are
sometimes associated with
dyslexia.
Anything that mentions “dyslexia
symptoms”.
Giving the impression that visual
symptoms indicate dyslexia is
present.
Claims that a high proportion of
individuals with dyslexia will
benefit from treatments offered
Appendices
365
by ECPs.
Role of
visual
factors in
dyslexia
Although visual factors are thought to contribute to some
cases of reading difficulty, the relative contribution of visual
stress & binocular instability compared with other factors
(e.g., phonological deficit, verbal short-term/working
memory, rapid autonomised naming, magnocellular deficit) is
poorly understood.
Visual stress or binocular
instability may both be a factor
contributing to a child’s
reading difficulties.
Visual stress (or other visual
conditions) is “the main cause” or
“a major cause” of reading
difficulties or dyslexia.
Controversy
There are scientists and ECPs who support the assertions in
this and the next column.
There are also scientists and ECPs who do not endorse the
existence of visual stress and believe the benefits from
colour filters are attributable to placebo effects.
The existence of visual stress
and its treatment with
coloured filters remains
controversial due to a mixed
body of evidence.
Coloured filters are proven as a
treatment for visual stress.
Coloured lenses (or overlays) are
scientifically proven.
ECP, eye care practitioner; WRRT, Wilkins Rate of Reading Test.
Appendices
366
Appendix 2: Information to help publishers
The clarity of text is individual – different people have different
needs and preferences. Some people who have difficulty reading
need unusually large spacing between letters, words and lines of text,
and better differentiation of letter shapes within a font. With the
advent of electronic text, the individual needs of readers can be met,
at least in principle, although there is currently little to help them find
their preferred settings.
When text is printed on paper as opposed to on a screen there is a
pressure to increase the density of letters on the page in order to
reduce the costs of paper and printing, and this pressure has resulted
in fonts such as Times, which was designed for narrow columns of
newsprint, but is widely used in books. Times is a serif font, and one
aspect of serifs is that they often have the effect of making regular
stripes from the vertical strokes of letters within a word. Compare the
word minimum in Times and minimum in Open Sans. The regularity
of the stripes can be measured using the horizontal autocorrelation
of the word or text, as described in Chapter 8. This book is printed in
Open Sans, a font that has been shown to have a low horizontal
autocorrelation. The clarity of text is also influenced strongly by the
ratio of the x-height to line spacing. x-height is the height of the
central body of the letters and line spacing is measured from the
baseline of one line of text to the baseline of the next. The smaller the
ratio, the clearer the text. The ratio is generally 35-45% in books, but
in this book the ratio is only 32%, and is therefore likely to be rated as
relatively clear.
It is likely that following the format used in this book and outlined
above will help publishers to make their books accessible to a wider
Appendices
367
audience.
Appendix 3: Additional resources
• Questionnaire that practitioners can download and modify for
use in their practices:
http://www.cmt-optometrists.co.uk/spldq.doc
• Arnold Wilkins’ website (includes list of publications with many
pdfs):
http://visualstress.info
• A list of Bruce Evans’ publications, including access to pdfs:
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bruce-Evans-2/research
• Society for Coloured Lens Prescribers (lists clinicians who have
declared appropriate training and equipment for investigating
visual stress):
www.s4clp.org
Appendices
368
Index
A
Accommodation (ocular), 39, 62, 194, 209,
212
Accommodative amplitude, 53, 62
Accommodative facility (and infacility),
62–64, 285, 286
Accommodative lag, 32, 62–64, 69, 211,
212, 278, 284
Accommodative spasm, 284
Active treatment, 350
Additive risk factor model of dyslexia, 232
Age-related macular degeneration, 330
Aligning prism, 47, 49, 57, 67, 69, 278,
282, 283
Amblyopia, 41, 69, 87, 274
Anisometropia, 27
Associated heterophoria, 282
Asthenopia, 42
Astigmatism, 27, 30, 31, 272
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 6,
52, 58, 79, 132
Attrition, 186, 187, 350
Autism (ASD), 314
Aversion, 219, 318, 319
B
Behavioural optometry, 75, 91, 93, 97
Bifocals, 365
Binocular co-ordination, 51, 58, 61, 213,
275, 344
Binocular instability, 1, 9, 12, 34, 39,
56–62, 66, 68, 69, 79, 83, 84, 90, 91,
94, 125, 132, 134, 139, 213, 214,
232, 280, 283, 342, 365
Binocular vision, 14, 27, 33, 39, 40, 46, 49,
51, 56, 66, 68, 194, 209, 215, 233,
271, 272, 274–276, 280, 297, 342
Blinding (in trials), see masking
Blurring symptoms, 33, 42, 272, 276
BOLD response, 225, 332
Bottom up vs. top down, 77
Brain lesions in dyslexia, 333
Brightness, 160, 165, 166, 168, 221, 256,
262, 309, 318, 326, 354
C
Case control study, 348
Cerebellar-vestibular dysfunction, 94
Cerebellum, 94, 126
Cerium Visual Technologies, 168, 170, 287
Chromagen system, 173
Chromatic aberration, 212, 298
Chromaticity, 160, 161, 167, 169, 171,
173–175, 181, 183, 184, 187, 190,
192–195, 209, 212, 227–230,
239–245, 247, 253, 255, 257, 260,
314, 322, 328, 329, 331–334
Chromaticity diagram, 160, 161
CIE (1976) uniform chromaticity scale
(UCS) diagram, 161
CITT-ART study, 50, 53
City University (colour vision) Test, 24
Classroom lighting, 229, 246
Classroom management, 229, 279
Clumsy child syndrome, 5
Cluster headache, 309, 325
Code of conduct, 301
Coherent dot motion, 111, 121, 131
Coherent form motion, 111, 121
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
A. J. Wilkins and B. J. W. Evans, Vision, Reading Difficulties and Visual Stress,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-65568-5
369
Index
370
Colour adaptation, 166, 200, 288
Colour vision anomaly (’colour blindness’),
23
Colour vision (colour perception), 21, 23,
24, 32, 169, 189, 210, 278
Complementary, 232, 248
Computers, 173, 252, 352, 354
Cone photoreceptors, 158, 160, 211, 333
Confounding variables, 58, 59, 63, 127,
343, 345, 346, 348
Continuous variables, 346
Contrast sensitivity function, 110, 121, 215,
217, 219
Control treatment, 4, 96, 127, 130, 131,
138, 139, 349, 350
Convergence insufficiency, 39, 50–53, 55,
68, 69, 76, 93
Cornea, 333
Corning CPF 450, 330
Correlational study, 347
CR39 lenses, 157
Eye exercises, 3, 47, 49–51, 53–55, 61, 65,
66, 69, 75, 93, 204, 272, 274, 342
Eye movements, 39, 58, 59, 61, 73, 75–80,
83, 85, 86, 97
Eyestrain, 42, 47, 128, 155, 233, 272
F
FL41 and FL-41 tinted lenses, 318
Flicker, 10, 12, 96, 110, 114–116, 119, 141,
228–230, 252, 264, 286, 318, 319,
332, 342, 352, 354
Flickering or shimmering words, 96
Fluorescent lighting, 172, 193, 228–230,
245, 259, 286, 288, 295, 319, 331,
332, 342
FMRI (functional magnetic resonance
imaging), 112, 121, 126, 133, 140,
232, 332
Frequency doubling technique, 22, 110, 126
Fusional reserves, 32, 54–58, 60–62, 69,
278, 280–282
D
Developmental Eye Movement test, 80, 82
Diagnostic criteria, 11, 187, 195, 205,
297–299, 317, 343, 346
Dichotomising variables, 346
Dispensing, 2
Distortions perceptual, 10, 47, 156, 163,
170, 175, 182, 185, 212, 220, 222,
224, 226, 231, 233
Double vision (diplopia), 45
Driving, 80, 230, 296, 354
Dunlop Test, 89–91
Dyslexia, 1, 5–8, 10–12, 21–23, 25, 28–31,
34, 39, 44, 47, 51, 52, 57, 58, 63, 77,
78, 80, 83, 89, 96, 108, 122, 124,
126, 127, 130, 133, 135–139, 189,
201, 214, 232, 233, 267, 270, 273,
275, 300, 317, 341, 342, 345, 346,
351, 361, 365
Dyspraxia, 5, 94
E
Electroencephalogram (EEG), 309
Electromagnetic radiation, 158
Epilepsy, 1, 10, 162, 164, 219, 220, 224,
225, 231, 274, 309, 310, 317, 330,
332
Evidence-based approach, 267, 301, 352
Exclusion criteria, 79
Exophoria, 45–53, 55, 76, 282
G
Glare, 32, 60, 63, 134, 209, 220, 221, 225,
229, 232, 251, 254, 259, 264, 289,
291, 296, 326
H
Headaches, 12, 13, 47, 128, 162, 182, 224,
229, 274, 276, 279, 318, 319, 323,
325, 332
Head injury (concussion), 10
Heterophoria, 39, 44, 46, 49, 50, 56, 59, 61,
66, 67, 69, 273, 281–283
I
IFS (Institute Free-space Stereogram)
exercises, 54
Inclusion criteria, 349
Institute of Optometry, 54
Insufficiency, 34, 39, 50–53, 64, 68
International Lighting Commission CIE,
160, 161, 173, 195, 227, 241, 244
Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion
cells (ipRGCs), 159, 333
Intuitive Colorimeter, 32, 155, 158,
165–172, 181, 182, 189, 192, 197,
205, 239, 243, 250, 253, 254, 256,
279, 288, 294, 297, 310, 321, 323,
328–330
Index
371
Intuitive Overlays, 32, 155, 173, 174, 187,
202, 243, 245, 248, 279, 287, 288,
311
Irlen Institutes or centres, 157, 173
Irlen Syndrome, see Meares-Irlen syndrome
Irlen system for dyeing lenses, 172
Ishihara Test, 24
J
Just-noticeable-difference (jnd), 194
K
Koniocellular pathway, 107, 110, 213
L
Lateral geniculate nucleus, 108
LED lighting, 230, 246, 263, 342
Lighting levels in s chools, 229
Low vision, 330, 332
Luminance, 133, 160, 166, 215, 216, 219,
226, 228, 255, 294, 318, 330, 331
P
Parvocellular-ventral pathway, 108
Patient’s preferences and actions, 351
Pattern glare, 32, 60, 63, 134, 187, 209,
220, 221, 225, 232, 251, 254, 259,
264, 289, 291, 296, 326
Pattern glare test, 187, 220, 279, 291, 299
Pattern-related visual stress, 10, 157
Pattern-sensitive epilepsy, 162
Photoparoxysmal response, 309
Photophobia (light sensitivity), 10, 160,
251, 276, 279, 295, 318, 320, 324,
325, 327, 328, 333
Photoreceptors, 158, 160, 211, 320, 333
Photosensitive epilepsy, 10, 162, 164, 219,
224, 225, 231, 274, 309, 310, 330
Placebo, 50, 53, 56, 75, 85, 96, 130, 131,
136, 138, 182, 185, 187, 188, 195,
200, 205, 272, 289, 315, 316, 320,
350, 366
Prevalence of visual stress, 11, 317
Prism vergences, see (fusional reserves)
Pupillary light reflex, 211
Pupil size, 211
M
Magnocellular-dorsal pathway, 23, 59, 82,
107
Mallett unit (fixation disparity test), 47, 49,
280, 281, 283, 285
Masking (blinding), 350
Meares-lrlen syndrome, 10, 157
Melanopsin, 211, 320, 321, 333
Migraine with aura, 199, 322–324
Migraine without aura, 322, 324
Monocular occlusion, 91
Moving or wobbling words, 12
Multiple sclerosis, 1, 10, 261, 309, 326
O
Ocular dominance, 75, 87–90, 97
Ophthalmic optician, see optometrist
Ophthalmologist, 3, 301
Optician, 2, 268, 301
Optometrist, 2, 8, 31, 33, 34, 65, 77, 91, 93,
156, 197, 253, 268, 270, 271, 279,
285, 300, 301, 351, 352, 361
Orthoptist, 3, 301
Overlays, 10, 32, 155, 173–175, 178,
202–205, 214, 220, 229, 230, 243,
244, 246–252, 261, 287, 288, 295,
297, 311, 313, 327
R
Random allocation, 350
Randomised controlled trial, 4, 48, 54, 56,
62, 86, 96, 181, 203, 205, 230, 348,
349, 351, 355
Rate of Reading Test, see (Wilkins Rate of
Reading Test)
Reading, 1, 3, 5–13, 21–23, 25, 27–31, 33,
34, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47, 48, 50–52, 54,
55, 58, 60, 63–65, 68, 69, 75, 76, 78,
79, 80, 83, 84–86, 89–96, 107, 108,
110, 115, 118–121, 123, 124,
126–136, 138–140, 155, 156, 162,
164, 165, 173, 175–177, 182,
188–190, 192, 194, 195, 200–205,
213, 220, 230, 232, 242, 243, 248,
249, 251, 252, 259, 261, 262, 264,
267, 270, 273, 274, 276–280, 283,
288, 291, 295, 297, 299, 300, 311,
312, 326–328, 330, 332, 341, 344,
347, 349, 354, 355, 364, 367
Reading errors, 214
Reading speed, 29, 48, 138, 176, 177,
189–194, 201–204, 209, 214, 221,
223, 230, 231, 240, 242, 243, 245,
248, 250, 252, 262, 288, 312, 313,
326, 330
Index
372
Refraction, 63
Research methodology, 40
Retina, 76, 78, 158, 160, 211
Rod photoreceptors, 211
S
Saturation, 160, 165–167, 169, 170, 172,
173, 184, 196, 254, 255, 257, 260,
294
Scotopic sensitivity syndrome (SSS), 157
Scotopic vision, 10
Selective attention, 135, 137
Sensory visual stress, 10, 138
Short sight (myopia), 2
Sighting eye (dominance), 87
Sight vocabulary, 204
Specific Learning Difficulties (SpLD)
Assessment Standards Committee
(SASC) Guidance, 352
Specific learning disabilities, 8
Spectrum, 158, 161, 172, 173, 175, 182,
193, 198, 216, 222, 227, 228, 245,
248, 258, 311, 313, 316, 320, 321,
329
Spelling, 5, 6, 7, 60, 90, 125, 342
Squint, see strabismus
SSS, see Meares-Irlen syndrome
Statement of special educational needs, 8
Stereo-acuity (stereopsis), 59, 278
Strabismus, 3, 27, 39–46, 51, 56, 273, 280
Suppression, 41–43, 57, 285
Surface reflections, 167, 170
Surgery (eye), 3
Sustained visual system, see
(parvocellular-ventral pathway)
Symptoms, 1, 9–14, 26, 29, 31–34, 42, 44,
47, 49–54, 56, 61, 63, 64, 67–69, 76,
123, 124, 127, 128, 134, 172, 175,
185, 186, 195–197, 200, 202, 209,
213, 220, 221, 233, 251, 254, 255,
258–260, 263, 267, 270, 272, 273,
275–277, 279, 280, 283, 286, 291,
295, 296, 297, 299, 310, 318, 320,
323–326, 342, 344, 353, 365
T
Tracking, 13, 79
Transient visual system, see
(magnocellular-dorsal pathway)
Typoscope, 164, 165, 222
U
Ultra-violet radiation, 228, 229, 258, 261,
319
Uniform Chromaticity Scale (UCS)
diagram, 161
University of Essex, xv
V
Vergence drifts, 59
Vision screening, 3, 25, 28, 29
Visual acuity, 21, 24, 26, 29, 92, 121, 278,
330
Visual attention, 59, 94, 108, 132–134
Visual cortex, 11, 108, 217, 225, 226, 231,
232, 259, 260, 275, 332–334, 342
Visual discomfort, 162, 228, 233, 239, 331
Visual dyslexia, 8, 138, 363
Visual field, 21, 23, 32, 109, 110, 129, 134,
200, 224, 249, 259, 278, 294, 325,
330
Visual impairment, 4, 107
Visual perceptual distortion symptoms, 92
Visual perceptual (motor), 28, 29, 47, 91,
92, 156, 233, 259, 276, 280
Visual persistence, 109, 111
Visual processing, 108
Visual search, 63, 125, 134–136, 175, 221,
253, 327, 348
Visual snow, 107, 110, 309, 325, 332
Visual stress, 1, 4, 10–12, 14, 24, 26,
31–34, 47, 48, 60, 86, 122, 123, 135,
177, 187, 195–197, 200–205, 211,
212, 214, 221, 232, 233, 239, 259,
260, 261, 263, 264, 267, 271–273,
275, 276, 279, 293, 295, 296, 297,
299, 317, 328, 341–343, 351, 355,
362, 365
Visuo-spatial abilities, 131, 135, 137
W
Wavelength, 123, 158, 159, 161, 168, 169,
172, 173, 175, 209, 211, 215, 229,
239, 258, 319, 320, 331, 333, 334
Wilkins Rate of R eading Test, 48, 175, 189,
195, 202, 252, 288, 289, 299, 311,
326, 364