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A. Al-lami et al.
• Recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) injury: temporary, permanent
• Hypoparathyroidism (leading to hypocalcemia): temporary, permanent
• Hypothyroidism (if hemithyroidectomy, 20% chance)
• Hematoma: may require urgent surgical intervention
• Superior laryngeal nerve injury
• Tracheomalacia
Early (days–weeks)
• Infection
• Aspiration secondary to vocal cord palsy
Late
• Scarring and keloid formation
Steps of the Surgery
1. Administer general anaesthesia and endotracheal intubation.
2. Position the patient supine with a rolled towel or shoulder roll to extend the
neck. Use a head ring to support the head.
3. Place the leads required for the RLN monitor. Prep+drape the patient.
4. Consider injecting local anaesthetic such as Lignospan (1:80,000 adrenaline) or
1:100,000 adrenaline for haemostasis.
5. Perform a transverse curvilinear skin incision midway between the cricoid car-
tilage and the sternal notch, curving slightly upward (ideally using an existing
skin crease).
6. Dissect subplatysmal aps superiorly and inferiorly to expose the strap mus-
cles. Use cold-steel or mono-polar dissection. Use the anterior jugular veins as
your deep margin. Superiorly, you would raise the ap until you are able to
palpate the thyroid cartilage. Inferiorly, it should be until the clavicle.
7. Use instruments such as shhooks, sutures, Alexis retractor, or a Joll’s retractor
to expose the surgical eld.
8. If a continuous intraoperative nerve monitor for the RLN is used, at this point,
you would dissect and present the vagus nerve (found in the carotid sheath
between and posterior to the common carotid artery and internal jugular vein)
and clip the monitor to the nerve.
9. Divide through the midline down to thyroid isthmus, and retract the strap mus-
cles to expose the thyroid gland, as seen in Fig.1.1. If required, transect the
sterno-thyroid or sterno-hyoid strap muscles for superior access for the superior
pole of the thyroid gland.
10. Start by dissecting out the superior pole of the thyroid gland. Stick close to the
thyroid gland capsule, and dissect the vasculature as required. Dissecting Joll’s
triangle between thyroid and trachea can be useful.
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Fig. 1.1 Thyroid anatomy. Illustrated by Vikum Liyanaarachchi
11. Identify and preserve the superior parathyroid glands and their blood supply
with meticulous dissection (Fig.1.2).
12. Continue the dissection by focussing on the inferior pole. Carefully dissect to
preserve the blood supply of the parathyroid glands.
13. Identify and ligate the superior, middle thyroid vein and inferior thyroid vessels.
14. Identify and preserve the recurrent laryngeal nerve, and conrm its position
using the nerve monitor. This requires careful dissection in the tracheooesophageal groove at the level of the cricothyroid joint.
15. If total thyroidectomy, repeat this procedure on the opposite side and remove
the thyroid gland (either a hemithyroidectomy or total thyroidectomy, depending on the indication).
16. Achieve meticulous haemostasis with a head down and Valsalva, and inspect
the surgical eld. You may place haemostatic soluble material in the surgical
site, and cover the RLN.
17. If required, insert suction drain (i.e. large dead space or a prior oozing operation).
18. Close the strap muscles, platysma, and skin in layers using appropriate sutures.
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Fig. 1.2 Sagittal view of thyroid gland and parathyroid glands. RLN will sit deep to ITA in the
majority of cases; however, it may be supercial. Illustrated by Vikum Liyanaarachchi
A. Al-lami et al.
Important Points to Note During the Surgery
• Meticulous dissection close to the thyroid gland is crucial to preserve the recur-
rent laryngeal nerve and parathyroid glands and its blood supply; Fig.1.3 shows
the arterial supply to this region.
• Use intraoperative nerve monitoring if available to help identify and protect the
recurrent laryngeal nerve. Consider continuous nerve monitoring.
• Inspect the surgical eld carefully for haemostasis to prevent post-operative
haematoma.
• If performing a total thyroidectomy for cancer, consider central compartment
lymph node dissection based on the extent of the disease.
Questions a Consultant Might Ask a Trainee About the Operation
1. What are the surgical landmarks of the recurrent laryngeal nerve?
The recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) is located in the tracheo-oesophageal
groove and inserts into the cricothyroid joint [2]. In 50% of patients, it is found
deep to the inferior thyroid artery (ITA); in 25%, it is between the ITA branches,
and in another 25%, it lies anterior to the ITA.The RLN is also in close proximity to the tubercle of Zuckerkandl, typically posteromedial. Posterior to the cricothyroid joint, the nerve inserts into the larynx. The right RLN has a more
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Fig. 1.3 Arterial blood
supply to thyroid gland.
Illustrated by Vikum
Liyanaarachchi
oblique path compared to the left, as it loops around the right subclavian artery,
while the left RLN loops around the aortic arch.
2. When do you expect a non-recurrent laryngeal nerve?
A non-recurrent laryngeal nerve is rare, occurring in <1% of cases, and
almost always on the right side [2]. You might expect it before surgery if an
X-ray or CT scan shows an aberrant subclavian artery (arteria lusoria), where
the right subclavian artery arises from the aortic arch. In such cases, the laryngeal nerve does not loop around the subclavian artery but instead arises directly
from the vagus nerve in a non-recurrent fashion.
3. What are Joll’s triangle and Beahrs’ triangle?
Joll’s triangle is used to identify the external branch of the superior laryngeal
nerve (SLN). It is bounded medially by the midline (trachea), laterally by the
superior pole of the thyroid, and superiorly by the strap muscles’ attachment.
Beahrs’ triangle helps identify the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN). The common carotid artery (CCA) forms the base, the inferior thyroid artery (ITA)
forms one side, and the RLN itself forms the other side of the triangle.
4. How do you manage a haematoma post-thyroidectomy?
Management can be either conservative or surgical, depending on the rate of
haematoma expansion and whether there is airway compromise. If intervention
is needed, the SCOOP protocol should be performed: remove Steri-Strips, cut
sutures, open the skin, open the muscles, and pack the wound. The consultant
and anaesthetists should be informed, and a exible nasal endoscopy (FNE)
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A. Al-lami et al.
should be done to assess the difculty of intubation, as laryngeal oedema is
often expected in these cases.
5. How do you manage a thyrotoxic storm?
Managing a thyrotoxic storm is an emergency procedure often necessary in
cases of uncontrolled thyrotoxicosis, where a surge of thyroxine hormones
enters the bloodstream. This requires a multidisciplinary team approach, involving senior anaesthetic, endocrinology, intensive care unit (ICU), and ENT specialists. Symptoms to expect include tachycardia, arrhythmias, hyperthermia,
hypertension, confusion, and potentially coma. Treatment includes administering IV uids, IV steroids, cooling measures, IV propranolol, potassium iodide
(KI), or sodium iodide (NaI) and admitting the patient to the ICU.
6. What are the landmarks for your incision, and why did you choose this
specic location?
The landmarks for the incision include the sternal notch and the cricoid car-
tilage. The incision is typically made midpoint between the cricoid cartilage
and the sternal notch, about two ngerbreadths above the sternal notch, curving
slightly upward [1]. This location is chosen because it provides optimal exposure of the thyroid gland while minimizing the visible scar. Aligning with the
natural skin creases further reduces the scar’s appearance post-operatively.
7. How can you differentiate the parathyroid glands from the surrounding
tissue, and why is it essential to preserve them?
The parathyroid glands are small, yellowish-brown, ovoid structures usually
located on the posterior aspect of the thyroid gland. They can be distinguished
from surrounding fatty and lymphatic tissues by their distinct colour and shape
[3]. Preserving the parathyroid glands is crucial because they regulate calcium
homeostasis. Damage to their blood supply or removal can cause hypoparathyroidism, leading to hypocalcaemia, which may result in serious complications
such as tetany, seizures, and cardiac arrhythmias.
8. Describe the anatomical course of the recurrent laryngeal nerve and its
relationship to the thyroid gland.
The recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) branches from the vagus nerve on each
side of the neck. On the right side, it loops around the right subclavian artery
and ascends towards the larynx; on the left, it loops around the aortic arch [2].
The RLN then travels between the trachea and oesophagus, running in the tracheo-oesophageal groove. Near the larynx, it courses close to the posterior
aspect of the thyroid gland, often passing through Berry’s ligament or posterior
to the cricothyroid joint (through the bres of the inferior constrictor muscle).
The RLN innervates all intrinsic muscles of the larynx, except the cricothyroid
muscle. Preserving the RLN during thyroidectomy is essential to prevent vocal
cord paralysis and subsequent hoarseness, dysphonia, or aspiration.
9. What measures can you take to minimize the risk of post-
operativehaematoma?
To minimize the risk of post-operative haematoma, meticulous haemostasis
is crucial during surgery, ensuring careful ligation or cauterization of blood vessels. Thoroughly inspect the surgical eld for any bleeding points before clos-
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ing, preferably with the patient in a head-down position and performing a
Valsalva manoeuvre to increase pressure and visualize bleeding points. Place
absorbable haemostatic material to aid in clotting. Consider placing a temporary drain to remove any accumulated blood or uid, and use appropriate suturing techniques to securely close the surgical site. Post-operatively, instruct the
patient to avoid activities that could increase blood pressure or strain the
neck area.
10. In cases of thyroid cancer, when would you consider performing a central
compartment lymph node dissection?
A central compartment lymph node dissection, or central neck dissection,
may be considered in thyroid cancer cases when there is evidence of clinically
positive lymph nodes in the central compartment (levels VI and VII) on preoperative imaging or physical examination. Other considerations include a primary tumour that is high risk or has aggressive features such as extrathyroidal
extension, vascular invasion, or positive margins. Additionally, a history of
radiation exposure, a strong family history of thyroid cancer, a primary tumour
larger than 4cm, or bilateral multifocal disease may also warrant this procedure. It is essential to weigh the potential benets of central compartment
lymph node dissection against the risk of complications, such as injury to the
recurrent laryngeal nerve and parathyroid glands.
1.2 Parathyroidectomy
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Indications for Surgery [4]
• Primary hyperparathyroidism with symptomatic hypercalcaemia.
• Secondary parathyroid hyperplasia in patients with chronic kidney disease.
• Asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism with indications for surgery (e.g.
serum calcium >1mg/dL above the upper limit of normal, reduced creatinine
clearance, osteoporosis, or nephrolithiasis).
• Recurrent or persistent hyperparathyroidism after previous parathyroid surgery.
• Parathyroid carcinoma or atypical adenoma.
• Tertiary hyperparathyroidism.
Specific Risks Involved with the Surgery
Immediate
• Recurrent laryngeal nerve injury: temporary, permanent
• Hypoparathyroidism: temporary, permanent
• Haematoma: may require urgent surgical intervention
• Failure to identify the site of parathyroid adenoma
Early (days–weeks)
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A. Al-lami et al.
• Hungry bone syndrome
• Infection
Late (months+)
• Scarring and keloid formation
• Persistent or recurrent hyperparathyroidism
Steps of the Surgery (Central Neck Approach)
1. Administer general anaesthesia and monitored endotracheal intubation if RLN
monitor is used.
2. Position the patient supine with a rolled towel or shoulder roll and head ring to
extend the neck.
3. Place the leads required for the RLN monitor. Prep+drape the patient.
4. Consider Injecting local anaesthetic such as Lignospan (1:80,000 adrenaline) or
1:100,000 adrenaline for haemostasis.
5. Perform a transverse curvilinear skin incision at the midpoint between the cri-
coid cartilage and sternal notch or 2 ngerbreadths above the sternal notch,
curving slightly upward (ideally using an existing skin crease).
6. Dissect subplatysmal aps superiorly and inferiorly to expose the strap mus-
cles. Use cold-steel or mono-polar dissection.
7. Use instruments such as shhooks, sutures, Alexis, or a Joll’s retractor to expose
the surgical eld.
8. Divide through the midline down to thyroid isthmus, and retract the strap mus-
cles to expose the thyroid gland. If required, transect the sterno-thyroid or
sterno-hyoid strap muscles for superior access for the superior pole of the thyroid gland.
9. If parathyroid adenoma is localized in preoperative imaging, target the relevant
quadrant of the parathyroid adenoma.
10. Consider exploring the other ipsilateral parathyroid gland if adenoma is not
localized.
11. Identify the parathyroid glands (usually four) and the abnormal gland(s) based
on preoperative localization studies or intraoperative ndings.
12. If parathyroid adenoma is not easily localized, consider hiding places for an
adenoma in the carotid sheath or retro-oesophageal region.
13. Excise the abnormal parathyroid gland(s) while preserving the normal glands
and their blood supply.
14. Identify and preserve the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
15. If possible, conrm the excised gland’s identity by sending a sample for frozen
section or assessing a drop in intraoperative parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels.
16. Achieve meticulous haemostasis, and inspect the surgical eld.
17. Consider inserting suction drain if large dead space operating eld.
18. Close the strap muscles, platysma, and skin in layers using appropriate sutures.
1 Head andNeck
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Important Points to Note During the Surgery
• Meticulous dissection is crucial to identify and preserve the normal parathyroid
glands and their blood supply, which includes the inferior and superior thyroid
arteries (Figs.1.2 and 1.3).
• Use intraoperative nerve monitoring if available to help identify and protect the
recurrent laryngeal nerve.
• Consider using intraoperative PTH monitoring to conrm successful removal of
the abnormal gland(s) and predict post-operative calcium levels.
• Inspect the surgical eld carefully for haemostasis to prevent post-operative
haematoma.
Questions a Consultant Might Ask a Trainee About the Operation
1. What are the indications for parathyroidectomy in patients with primary
hyperparathyroidism?
Parathyroidectomy is indicated in patients with primary hyperparathyroid-
ism for the following reasons: a. Symptomatic hypercalcemia: Patients experiencing symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, depression, bone pain, or kidney
stones due to high calcium levels. b. Asymptomatic hyperparathyroidism with
indications for surgery: Patients without symptoms but with ndings indicating
a need for intervention. These may include serum calcium levels >1 mg/dL
above the upper limit of normal, reduced creatinine clearance, osteoporosis
(T-score≤−2.5), nephrolithiasis (kidney stones), or a history of fragility fractures. c. Recurrent or persistent hyperparathyroidism after previous parathyroid
surgery: Patients who continue to have elevated parathyroid hormone (PTH)
and calcium levels after an initial parathyroidectomy, or those who experience
a recurrence. d. Parathyroid carcinoma or atypical adenoma: Patients with
malignant or atypical parathyroid tumours [4].
2. What is the workup before proceeding with parathyroid surgery for pri-
mary hyperparathyroidism?
This should be done in a multidisciplinary team (MDT) fashion with endo-
crinology input beforehand:
As per NICE guidelines 2019 [5]:
PTH, albumin-adjusted calcium, Vit D, eGFR and creatinine, 24-h urinary
calcium, DEXA scan, renal U/S scan, U/S scan neck, and consider sestamibi
scan. 4D CT is also being used where available to help localize the adenoma.
3. What is the reason for requesting 24-h urinary calcium in this setting?
To rule out familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia. This genetic condition is
characterized by high levels of calcium in the blood but low levels of calcium
in the urine. Differentiating FHH from primary hyperparathyroidism is crucial,
as FHH generally requires conservative management, whereas primary hyperparathyroidism often necessitates surgical intervention.
4. What is the management if hypocalcaemia develops post-operatively?
This should be managed in an MDT approach with endocrinology input:
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A. Al-lami et al.
As per BAETS guidelines [6]:
• If Ca < = 1.8 or severe symptoms: IV calcium gluconate 10% 10 mL in
100mL saline over 1h.
• If Ca 1.8–2: calcium tablets (recheck Ca every 12h) and check/correct Mg.
• If Ca 2–2.1 with symptoms: calcium tablets (recheck Ca every 12h) and
check/correct Mg.
• If Ca 2–2.1 asymptomatic: recheck Ca after 24h.
5. What is the embryological origin of parathyroid glands?
Superior parathyroid gland originates from the fourth branchial pouch.
Inferior parathyroid gland originates from the third branchial pouch [4].
6. What are the ectopic sites for parathyroid gland (hidden sites)?
Superior parathyroid ectopic sites: tracheoesophageal groove, retro-
oesophageal, or posterior mediastinum.
Inferior parathyroid ectopic sites: within thymus, the anterior mediasti-
num,intrathyroidal, or within thyro-thymic ligament.
The inferior parathyroid adenoma generally shows a more variable location
as it has a longer space to descend into the neck arising from the third branchial arch.
7. How do you differentiate normal from abnormal parathyroid glands dur-
ing surgery?
Normal parathyroid glands are typically small, yellowish-brown, and ovoid,
measuring about 3–4mm in thickness and 6mm in length [4]. Abnormal parathyroid glands, such as those affected by adenomas or hyperplasia, are generally larger, with a different texture and colour compared to normal glands.
Preoperative localization studies (e.g. sestamibi scan, ultrasound, or 4D CT)
and intraoperative ndings can help identify the abnormal gland(s). In some
cases, intraoperative PTH monitoring can be utilized to conrm successful
removal of the abnormal gland(s) and predict post-operative calcium levels.
8. Describe the anatomical relationship between the parathyroid glands, the
thyroid gland, and the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
The parathyroid glands are typically located on the posterior aspect of the
thyroid gland. There are usually four glands, with two superior and two inferior
glands on each side. However, their exact location may vary. The recurrent
laryngeal nerve (RLN) runs near the thyroid gland, coursing between the trachea and oesophagus in the tracheoesophageal groove [4]. As it approaches the
larynx, the RLN often penetrates the Berry’s ligament on the posterior aspect of
the thyroid gland. It is essential to preserve the RLN during surgery to prevent
vocal cord paralysis and other complications.
Superior parathyroid glands are typically antero-medial to the RLN.Inferior
parathyroid glands are typically postero-lateral to the RLN.
9. What are the potential complications of parathyroidectomy, and how can
you minimize their occurrence?
Potential complications of parathyroidectomy include recurrent laryngeal
nerve injury, hypoparathyroidism, haematoma, infection, scarring, hungry bone
syndrome, and persistent or recurrent hyperparathyroidism. To minimize these
1 Head andNeck
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complications, a. use meticulous dissection techniques to identify and preserve
the normal parathyroid glands, their blood supply, and the recurrent laryngeal
nerve; b. utilize intraoperative nerve monitoring, if available, to help identify
and protect the recurrent laryngeal nerve; c. achieve thorough haemostasis during surgery, and inspect the surgical eld carefully before closing to prevent
post-operative haematoma; d. maintain aseptic technique throughout the procedure to minimize the risk of infection; and e. consider using intraoperative PTH
monitoring to conrm successful removal of the abnormal gland(s) and predict
post-operative calcium levels.
10. How can intraoperative PTH monitoring be utilized during parathyroidec-
tomy, and what are its benets?
Intraoperative PTH monitoring involves measuring the patient’s parathyroid
hormone (PTH) levels during the surgery. A baseline PTH level is obtained
before the removal of the abnormal parathyroid gland. After excision of the
suspected abnormal gland(s), additional PTH samples are taken at specic time
intervals, usually 5 and 10min post-excision. A signicant drop in PTH levels
(typically more than 50% from the baseline) indicates the successful removal of
the hyperfunctioning gland(s).
The benets of intraoperative PTH monitoring include (a) conrmation of
successful removal of the abnormal parathyroid gland(s) during surgery, reducing the risk of persistent hyperparathyroidism; (b) identication of additional
hyperfunctioning glands not detected preoperatively or during the surgery,
improving the likelihood of a successful operation; (c) reducing the need for
extensive neck exploration, which can minimize the risk of complications such
as injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve and parathyroid glands; (d) providing
guidance on the appropriate extent of surgery in cases of multiglandular disease, helping to avoid over- or under-treatment; and (e) allowing for a more
accurate prediction of post-operative calcium levels, which can help guide postoperative calcium supplementation and monitoring.
1.3 Neck Dissection (Selective, Modified Radical, Radical)
Indications for Surgery [7]
• Therapeutic: Metastatic cervical lymph node involvement in head and neck
malignancies (required to stage the patient’s TNM)
• Therapeutic: Nodal recurrence after previous treatment (surgery, radiation, or
chemoradiation)
• Elective: Prophylactic treatment for patients with a high risk of occult cervical
metastasis
• Salvage surgery for residual or recurrent disease after chemoradiation
• For access purposes when neck vessels need to prepare for microvascular free
ap reconstruction