Liposomes, derived from the term “lipid body,” are micro­scopic spherical vesicles composed of one or more concentric lipid bilayers, with water or aqueous buffer compartments in between, and diameters ranging from 25 nm to 10,000 nm. These structures form through the self-assembly of phospholipid molecules in an aqueous environment. Liposomes typically consist of one or more amphiphilic phospholipid bilayer membranes, also known as phos­pholipid vesicles, capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. Hydrophilic drugs are enclosed within the aqueous center of the liposome, while the phospholipid membrane comprising the liposome’s wall can accommodate hydrophobic agents.

Hyaluronic acid represents a novel polymer suitable for crafting medication delivery systems. This linear macromolecular muco­polysaccharide consists of interconnected glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine saccharide units. It possesses attributes such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and high viscoelasticity, and it can bind to specific cell surface receptors. Given its natural presence in eye tissue and its role in wound healing, utilizing hyaluronic acid as a carrier for ocular drug delivery seems logical, provided that it ensures consistent release of the incorporated pharmaceuticals. The use of active targeted hyaluronic acid (HA)-based drug nanocar­riers has significantly enhanced drug distribution to cancer cells. Furthermore, lipid nanoparticles coated with appropriate HA have been engineered as biocompatible drug carriers, showing promising potential for targeted drug delivery to specific tissues while mitigating side effects on other tissues. Employing HA-based nanocarriers for cancers exhibiting elevated CD44 receptor expres­sion offers several advantages, including enhanced drug delivery, improved therapeutic effectiveness, heightened cytotoxicity, a nota­ble reduction in tumor growth, and considerable potential for targeted chemotherapy.

Jedrzejczak-Silicka and her team have demonstrated the utility of hexagonal boron nitride (H-BN) in drug research and delivery systems. Their study revealed a decrease in the proliferation of

MCF-7 cell line cultures compared to normal L929 cell lines when exposed to H-BN loaded with gold particles. The process involved exfoliating H-BN through chemical treatment using a modified Hummers’ method and sonication treatment, followed by functio­nalization with gold particles for analysis using the neutral red (NR) uptake assay.

oral ingestion.

These include improved performance, automation, precision, and efficacy resulting from the integration of miniaturized sizes with multifunctional components. Moreover, MEMS-based devices contribute to reduced pain and invasiveness during use. Addition­ally, they enable drug stability maintenance during encapsulation, adjustable and continuous delivery, and facilitate the automated release of multiple drugs from reservoirs.

The demand for targeted drug delivery (TDD) over conventional drug delivery systems (DSS) stems from four key factors: the inad­equate per formance of drugs concerning pharmacodynamic, phar­macokinetic, pharmaceutical, and pharmacotherapeutic aspects with conventional delivery methods (Fig.

7]. Moreover, simpler drug administration processes, reduced

distribution throughout the body, heightened specificity in locali­zation, decreased toxicity, lowered dosage requirements, and enhanced patient adherence to treatment regimens.

action of the agent. Biological targeting allows localized agents to concentrate in target areas using antibodies (Abs), peptides, pro­teins, or other biomolecules that possess affinity with receptors, sites, or other biological targets in a specific manner. Gene expres­sion can also be localized to target areas using cells, tissue, or specific promoters within vector systems.

systems. These systems are comprised of a combined glucose sensor and insulin pump, which can autonomously halt insulin infusion when blood glucose levels drop below a predetermined threshold, without needing confirmation from the user. The advancement of LGS technology led to the development of predictive low-glucose suspend (PLGS) systems. These systems incorporate algorithms capable of forecasting impending hypoglycemia, such as within the next 30 minutes, an the onset designed to mitigate both hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia by regulating glucose levels within a specified target range. These systems employ a computerized algorithm to modify the basal insulin rate and administer corrective bolus doses as needed. They are termed “hybrid” systems because, unlike fully closed-loop sys­tems, users are still responsible for manuall boluses when opposed to hybrid systems, are engineered to automate insulin delivery entirely, eliminating the need for user input regarding mealtime boluses. The primary obstacle in fully closed-loop systems lies in managing postprandial hyperglycemia, given the absence of manually provided data regarding meal timing and carbohydrate intake. These instances of postprandial glucose elevation f lead to current rapid-acting insulins. Two early closed-loop systems, pio­neered by Kadish and Shichiri, employed a dual-hormone strategy, utilizing both insulins to counteract hyperglycemia and glucagon to counteract hypoglycemia. However, the use of glucagon in closed-loop systems became less common during the Biostator era and only reappeared in subcutaneous closed-loop systems in research ar hormone alongside continuous insulin infusion, stems from the notion that preventing hypoglycemia is more effective through glucagon administration rather than suspending insulin delivery. This is pri­marily due to the pharmacokinetic properties of subcutaneous insulin and glucagon: currently, available rapid-acting insulins have a relatively slow onset reach maximum of action (up to 4–6 hours), whereas glucagon exhibits a rapid onset within 5 minutes [

Liposomes are tiny vesicles containing an aqueous core surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane. A.D. Bangham and R.W. Thorne initially observed these structures in 1964 through electron micros­copy while studying the dispersion of phospholipids in water. They