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Chapter 6
Misdiagnosis ofCommon Variable Immune Deciency
KatarzynaKarpinska-Leydier
Learning Objectives
By the end of this presentation, the clinician will be able to:
1. Assess the overlapping features between common variable immune deciency with granulomatous features and sarcoidosis.
2. Recall that sarcoidosis is a diagnosis of exclusion and identify steps necessary to arrive at a condent diagnosis.
3. Interpret clinical ndings as features present over an indolent course to aim for early detection and treatment of CVID.
4. Distinguish between coexisting immunodeciency and autoimmune disorders where CVID is present and immunoglobulin replacement therapy is needed.
5. Apply the knowledge gained from this and similar cases where appropriate in future clinical settings.

Introduction

Common variable immune deciency (CVID) and sarcoidosis may share the com­mon feature of granulomatous inammation [1]. CVID is a primary immunode­ciency disorder where impaired B-cell differentiation results in reduced serum IgG with low IgA and IgM, resulting in a blunted response to immunizations and a higher risk of recurrent bacterial infection [1–3]. It is the most common primary immunodeciency, with a prevalence ranging from 1:25,000 to 1:50,000 [3]. Granulomatous features are seen in 8–22% [3]. Despite this, CVID is not always a distinct and clear presentation which may lead to misdiagnosis, resulting in
K. Karpinska-Leydier (*) Internal Medicine, Florida State University - Cape Coral Hospital, Cape Coral, FL, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Tohid et al. (eds.), The Misdiagnosis Casebook in Clinical Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28296-6_6
39
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K. Kar pinska-Leydier
treatment delays and complications, including mortality [3]. Sarcoidosis is a multi­system granulomatous disease diagnosed by exclusion [1, 4]. It may be either erro­neously diagnosed without proper workup or coexist with other immune- mediated diseases (IMDs) [1, 4]. Among IMDs associated with sarcoidosis, CVID shows the strongest relationship compared with the general population, further adding to mis­diagnosis in complex clinical presentation [4]. Moreover, CVID may present with features similar to sarcoidosis, such as arthralgia and granulomatous lymphocytic interstitial lung disease (GLILD) [5, 6]. Immunodeciency disorders among them­selves also have a considerable overlap of features such as GLILD seen in approxi­mately 10–30% of CVID cases and can specically impact prognosis and therapeutic options [7, 8]. Sarcoidosis usually requires the demonstration of granulomatous inammation, most commonly affecting the lungs and can involve the skin, lymph nodes, and eyes [1]. The granulomatous variant of CVID may closely mimic sar­coidosis; therefore, clinical discernment is necessary to ensure early detection and treatment for the appropriate diagnosis [9].

Clinical Case Presentation

In 1981, a 29-year-old male patient presented with cervical and axillary lymphade­nopathy, transient thrombocytopenia, and splenomegaly. A lymph node biopsy from the axilla demonstrated granulomatous inammation, interpreted as sarcoidosis. His past medical history is signicant for employment as a farmer and agricultural salesman and status as a lifelong nonsmoker. In 1998, he developed conjunctivitis, cough, breathlessness, and recurrent peripheral lymphadenopathy. Nodular intersti­tial pulmonary shadowing and bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy were present. Several investigations were performed at this time, including an elevated ACE level. Hypogammaglobulinemia was demonstrated with low IgG 3.3g/L (normal 6–16), IgM 0.7g/L (0.5–3), and IgA 0.5g/L (0.8–2.8) levels; however, this was not docu­mented as being clinically relevant.
He began oral steroid therapy in 1999 for the treatment of sarcoidosis. In 2009, he returned with increasing splenomegaly and thrombocytopenia, thought to be due to idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Bone marrow trephine showed the presence of granulomas and unremarkable megakaryocyte numbers. Within the year, left vocal cord palsy developed and was considered related to sarcoidosis. Over the next several years, he suffered from treatment-resistant ITP, systemic mal­aise, and increasing splenomegaly. In 2011, a prolonged right upper lobe cavitating pneumonia prompted further workup, including a bronchoalveolar lavage growing Haemophilus inuenzae on bronchoalveolar lavage and now recognized for agam­maglobulinemia (serum IgG, IgA, and IgM all <0.3g/L). Sarcoidosis was initially misdiagnosed and revised 30years later to common variable immune deciency, complicated by disseminated granulomatous disease, splenomegaly, and idiopathic (autoimmune) thrombocytopenia.
6 Misdiagnosis ofCommon Variable Immune Deciency
41

Differential Diagnosis

1. Common variable immune deciency (granulomatous variant)– CVID is a pri-
mary immunodeciency disorder with phenotypically normal B cells that under or fail to produce immunoglobulins. Presentation is typically between ages 20–40 with an indolent history of recurrent pyogenic respiratory infection affect­ing both men and women equally. Granulomas may be a feature of some vari­ants. Diagnosis involves serologic testing for low IgG, IgA, IgM, and plasma cells and insufcient response to immunizations. Flow cytometry is normal for subsets of both B and T cells. It is pertinent to treat early with IVIG replacement and manage infections.
2. Sarcoidosis– This multisystem disorder primarily affects the lung with noncase-
ating granulomatous inammation features. It commonly affects African American women. A chest X-ray is appropriate to assess for hilar lymphade­nopathy; however, sarcoidosis is a diagnosis of exclusion. Biopsy showing gran­ulomatous inammation and lab ndings of increased CD4/CD8 ratio and increased ACE are supportive. Treatment involves glucocorticoid therapy and is aimed at preventing progression.
What WasMisdiagnosed inThis Case andWhy?
Sarcoidosis was misdiagnosed in this case because of overlapping clinical features with the granulomatous variant of CVID and unrecognized agammaglobulinemia early in the clinical course.

Discussion

Allergy and immunology specialists are well versed in the nuances of common vari­able immune deciency (CVID) and its variants; however, typical disease hallmarks of sarcoidosis may be misleading, and a diagnosis may be reached without appro­priate investigation. Here, the patient was initially diagnosed with sarcoidosis in the presence of nodular granulomatous inammation and telltale bilateral hilar lymph­adenopathy; however, panhypogammaglobulinemia, which would indicate CVID, was initially overlooked [1]. It is typical for manifestations of CVID to develop over several years; however, serum immunoglobulins are necessary to distinguish between these two differentials, as hypergammaglobulinemia is more likely in sar­coidosis, but hypogammaglobulinemia is suspicious for a primary immunode­ciency [1, 5]. After the development of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP), increasing splenomegaly, and cavitating pneumonia with conrmed Haemophilus inuenzae, the serum IgG, IgA, and IgM were reassessed [1]. Although these
42
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
symptoms could t into a clinical picture of sarcoidosis, CVID must be suspected in patients with recurrent infections and immunodeciency; furthermore, concomitant autoimmunity, including ITP, may offer further support but is not specic enough to exclude sarcoidosis [1, 4–6] (Fig.6.1).
Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in granulomatous variants of CVID with intersti­tial lung disease (ILD) has a comparably high CD4:CD8 ratio to sarcoidosis; how­ever, the “sarcoid-like” presentation is distinct from pulmonary sarcoidosis when considering the entirety of clinical history and investigations [10–12]. Patients sus­pected of sarcoidosis may receive a diagnosis through radiological and histological examination even with sufcient clinical observation but still may lack a full clini­cal picture without serological testing [13]. Further overlap between sarcoidosis and CVID may be seen in the co-occurrence of chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) with CVID, which is rare but documented [14]. Granulomas are histologically iden­tical; however, a higher level of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in these patients may account for granuloma development [14]. A less common presentation of tonsillar granulomas raises suspicion for etiologies of malignancy, infection, or sarcoidosis; however, in a setting of B-cell deciency, this may be the only presenting symptom of CVID [15]. It is signicant to highlight that even in patients with CVID who develop the co-occurrence of sarcoidosis, hypogammaglobulinemia is present, and they are more likely to have recurrent infections, splenomegaly, and thrombocyto­penia [16].
Routine assessment of serum immunoglobulins in patients with suspected sar­coidosis can lead to early disease recognition and immunoglobulin replacement (IVIG), thereby reducing complications and mortality of CVID patients [1]. Granulomatous features do not respond to IVIG and usually require corticosteroids; however, additional immunosuppressive protocols with azathioprine or rituximab may be necessary for remission [3]. This regimen may increase the risk of infection,
Fig. 6.1 Comparison of CVID and sarcoidosis [3, 5]. CVID, common variable immune de- ciency; Ig, immunoglobulin
6 Misdiagnosis ofCommon Variable Immune Deciency
43
but because the presence of granulomas is a result of an independent process, they will not respond to IVIG alone [3]. Bronchiectasis is prevalent in the CVID popula­tion and is associated with poor prognosis; azathioprine improves the quality of life in these patients [3]. Serum immunoglobulin measurement is an inexpensive initial test that should be considered routine in patients suspected of sarcoidosis regardless of infection history; this ensures that CVID is correctly identied at an earlier clini­cal presentation and allows for prompt IVIG replacement [1].

Conclusion

Both immunodeciency and autoimmune conditions may take several years of clin­ical evolution before diagnosis. Nevertheless, the arrival at a diagnosis is not an infallible step to the correct treatment, as described here. Serum immunoglobulin levels should be evaluated in suspected sarcoidosis, and granulomatous variants of CVID should be properly excluded before a nal diagnosis is achieved. Patients with CVID should start IVIG early to avoid recurrent infections and resulting sequelae.

References

1. Shanks AM, Alluri R, Herriot R, Dempsey O. Misdiagnosis of common variable immune deciency. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014:bcr2013202806. Published 2014 Apr 1. https://doi.
org/10.1136/bcr- 2013- 202806.
2. Pacheco C, Morais A, Rolo R, Ferreira L, Nabiço R, Cunha J.Chronic granulomatous disease associated with common variable immunodeciency– 2 clinical cases. Rev Port Pneumol. 2014;20(4):219–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rppneu.2013.09.005.
3. Allaoui A, Moudatir M, Echchilal K, Alaoui FZ, Elkabli H.A misleading diagnosis of sarcoid­osis in an older woman. Eur J case rep. Intern Med. 2017;4(4):000463. Published 2017 Feb 16.
https://doi.org/10.12890/2017_000463.
4. Brito-Zerón P, Pérez-Alvarez R, Feijoo-Massó C, etal. Coexistence of immune-mediated dis­eases in sarcoidosis. Frequency and clinical signicance in 1737 patients. Joint Bone Spine. 2021;88(6):105236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2021.105236.
5. Farshad S, Figueroa Rodriguez F, Halalau A, Skender J, Rasmussen C, Pevzner M.The cen­tral nervous system effects and mimicry of common variable immunodeciency (CVID): a case report with literature review. Case Rep Rheumatol. 2019;2019:1–6. https://doi.
org/10.1155/2019/7623643.
6. Cowen JE, Stevenson J, Paravasthu M, et al. Common variable immunodeciency with granulomatous- lymphocytic interstitial lung disease and preceding neurological involvement: a case-report. BMC Pulm Med. 2020;20:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12890- 020- 01231- 6.
7. Sood AK, Funkhouser W, Handly B, Weston B, Wu EY. Granulomatous-lymphocytic inter­stitial lung disease in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a case report and literature review. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2018;18:3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882- 018- 0769- 7.
8. Perlman D, Sudheendra MT, Racilla E, Allen T, Bhargava M.Granulomatous-lymphocytic interstitial lung disease mimicking sarcoidosis. : GLILD case series. Sarcoidosis Vasculitis Diffuse Lung Dis. 2021;38(3):e2021025. https://doi.org/10.36141/svdld.v38i3.11114.
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9. Ameratunga R, Ahn Y, Tse D, et al. The critical role of histology in distinguishing sarcoid­osis from common variable immunodeciency disorder (CVID) in a patient with hypo­gammaglobulinemia. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2019;15:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13223- 019- 0383- 9.
10. Kollert F, Venhoff N, Goldacker S, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage cytology resembles sar­coidosis in a subgroup of granulomatous CVID. Eur Respir J. 2014;3:922–4. https://doi.
org/10.1183/09031936.00025513.
11. Bouvry D, Mouthon L, Brillet P-Y, etal. Granulomatosis-associated common variable immu­nodeciency disorder: a case-control study versus sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J. 2012;1:115–22.
https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00189011.
12. Naccache J-M, Bouvry D, Valeyre D. Bronchoalveolar lavage cytology resembles sar­coidosis in a subgroup of granulomatous CVID. Eur Respir J. 2014;3:924–5. https://doi.
org/10.1183/09031936.00170013.
13. Modrzewska K, Wiatr E, Langfort R, Oniszh K, Roszkowski-Sliz K.Pospolity zmienny nie­dobór odporności u chorej z podejrzeniem sarkoidozy [Common variable immunodeciency in a patient with suspected sarcoidosis]. Pneumonol Alergol Pol. 2009;77(1):91–6.
14. Pacheco C, Morais A, Rolo R, Ferreira L, Nabiço R, Cunha J.Chronic granulomatous disease associated with common variable immunodeciency– 2 clinical cases. Rev Port Pneumol. 2014;4:219–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rppneu.2013.09.005.
15. Laajala A, Kuismin O, Tastula M, et al. Tonsillar granuloma associated with hypogam­maglobulinemia. Allergy, Asthma Clin Immunol. 2020;16:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13223- 020- 00441- 1.
16. Fasano MB, Sullivan KE, Sarpong SB, etal. Report of 8 cases and review of the literature. Medicine. 1996;5:251–61. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005792- 199609000- 00002.
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
Chapter 7
Confusion ofCutaneous Reactions: AMisdiagnosis ofDrug Reaction withEosinophilia andSystemic Symptoms (DRESS) Syndrome
KatarzynaKarpinska-Leydier
Learning Objectives
By the end of this presentation, the clinician will be able to:
1. Assess the overlapping presentation of drug reaction and eosinophilia with sys­temic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome and red man syndrome.
2. Recall the clinical timeline and risk factors of DRESS syndrome presentation.
3. Relate adverse drug reactions involving vancomycin or cross-reacting glycopep­tide antibiotics with the onset of DRESS syndrome.
4. Recommend the use of the European Registry of Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reaction Criteria (RegiSCAR) clinical score in the assessment of vancomycin­associated drug reactions.
5. Apply the knowledge gained from this and similar cases where appropriate in future clinical settings.

Introduction

Rare and potentially fatal drug-induced reactions may not be immediate and can be challenging to connect with the inciting substance [1]. This creates a conundrum where the timing of drug administration, visual similarities between types of drug reactions, and rarity of certain conditions lead to misdiagnosis [1]. Drug reaction and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome commonly emerges between 2 and 8weeks after drug administration with features of widespread rash,
K. Karpinska-Leydier (*) Internal Medicine, Florida State University - Cape Coral Hospital, Cape Coral, FL, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 H. Tohid et al. (eds.), The Misdiagnosis Casebook in Clinical Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28296-6_7
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K. Kar pinska-Leydier
fever, lymphadenopathy, transaminitis, and end-organ damage including kidney injury [1, 2]. Drug-induced hypersensitivity reactions are relatively common among hospitalized patients at approximately 3%; however, rarer conditions such as DRESS syndrome must be considered in patients receiving vancomycin [2].
Vancomycin is widely used in US hospitals and produces a range of drug reac­tions ranging from the reasonably common red man syndrome to rarer DRESS syn­drome [3]. It is the rst-line therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections and an effective alternative for patients with contraindications to beta-lactam agents and active against gram-positive anaerobes [4]. However, only approximately 10% of hypersensitivity reactions to vancomycin are IgE-mediated [4]. RMS is a comparatively more common vancomycin hypersensitivity reaction, and often the rst differential considered [5]. However, it can be distinguished from DRESS syndrome by a limited presentation with cutaneous eruptions more typical in the upper body and onset within minutes or hours of vancomycin administration [5]. RMS does not require prior sensitization to vancomycin as it is mediated through MAS-related G protein-coupled receptor X2 [4]. Likewise, vancomycin can be readministered without desensitization since it is not an IgE-dependent reac­tion [4]. Another similar differential to consider is Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis (SJS/TEN), where features are consistent with cutaneous eruptions of the face and thorax, including blistering mucosal involvement, sparing the palms and soles [5].
Risk factors for vancomycin hypersensitivity reactions are those that increase the possibility of systemic absorption: these are often renal insufciency, high dose (over 500mg/day), prolonged exposure (longer than 10 days), and severe Clostridium difcile infection, including age over 65 years [6]. Some patients may be more prone to vancomycin-related reactions leading to multisystem compromise due to genetic variations in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) [7]. The case discussed here illustrates the difculty in diagnosing DRESS syndrome linked with vancomycin administration [1].

Clinical Case Presentation

A female patient aged 44years in a skilled nursing facility presented with a pru­ritic, diffuse, erythematous facial rash and a high fever persisting for 2 weeks. The course of the rash was waxing and waning over the course of the day with sudden progression every morning. Over the next week, she was given a trial of oral anti­histamines without improvement. The rash grew to involve the patient’s legs and evolved to encompass the upper extremities and trunk. Upon questioning, it was determined that she had received intravenous vancomycin for osteomyelitis 4 weeks before the onset of the rash. This prompted suspicion for red man syndrome
7 Confusion of Cutaneous Reactions: A Misdiagnosis of Drug Reaction…
47
(RMS); however, no improvement was noted on the antihistamine trial. Physical exam revealed bilateral conjunctival injection, facial edema, ssuring of lips, and lymphadenopathy. The rash appeared diffuse and erythematous to violaceous patches with periorbital sparing, discrete patches on the extremities, and trunk without blistering. Initial labs showed leukocytosis with 13% eosinophilia, ele­vated creatinine, and electrolyte abnormalities which prompted suspicion for acute kidney injury, indicating organ involvement. Punch biopsies conrmed spongiosis with small Langerhans abscesses, interface dermatitis in lichenoid pat­tern with cellular inltrates in the upper dermis, and eosinophils. The cumulative presentation of the patient’s history, physical examination, and histopathological ndings determined that DRESS syndrome (drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms) is the correct diagnosis. This realization further explained why treatment with antihistamines was ineffective and why it was ultimately dis­continued in favor of management with high-dose oral prednisone and uids. She showed signicant clinical improvement in cutaneous eruption and acute kidney injury. The patient was discharged on an oral prednisone taper with outpatient follow-up.

Differential Diagnosis

1. Drug reaction and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms syndrome (DRESS)–
DRESS syndrome is a potentially fatal delayed hypersensitivity caused by a handful of medications. Onset is between 2 and 8 weeks after exposure, andsymptoms including diffuse rash, facial edema, lymphadenopathy, fever, and organ involvement may follow. Eosinophilia may be present. Diagnosis is clinical and may include a skin biopsy but must meet RegiSCAR crite­ria.Prompt withdrawal of the inciting medication is necessary, in addition to supportive care and corticosteroids, as was done in the resolution of this case.
2. Red Man Syndrome– Red man syndrome is a vancomycin infusion-related ana-
phylactoid reaction that presents almost immediately on exposure with pruritis, an erythematous rash of the upper body, and may include angioedema and chest pain. The histamine release is proportionate to the vancomycin dose received. Management is the immediate discontinuation of vancomycin, and it responds well to H1 or H2 antihistamines. Management with antihistamines did not improve the condition of this patient.
3. Stevens-Johnson Syndrome/Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis –These are clinically
similar severe drug hypersensitivity reactions aficting the skin. Antibiotics, anti-seizure medications, and sulfur-containing drugs are most commonly implicated. Lesions are widespread and macular, which coalesce, causing blis-
48
tering and necrosis. Diagnosis is clinical, and treatment is supportive in addition to plasmapheresis, IVIG, or corticosteroids. In SJS, less than 10% of the body is affected; in TEN, up to 30% of the body area is affected. This presentation did not meet the criteria for SJS/TEN as it was nonblistering.
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
What WasMisdiagnosed inThis Case andWhy?
Drug reaction and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms syndrome was initially misdiagnosed as red man syndrome and given antihistamines without improvement until DRESS syndrome was recognized and treatment was started with high-dose oral prednisone.

Discussion

Hospitalized patients present a complex scenario where several medications, an unclear timeline, and varied clinical presentation convolute arrival at an accurate diagnosis. The case discussed here exemplies the difculty of diagnosing DRESS syndrome [1]. The patient was notably given intravenous vancomycin for more than 10 days to treat osteomyelitis prior to rash onset [1]. Antihistamines, the typical therapy for RMS, were ineffective, and the rash spread to cover the legs, trunk, and upper extremities [1]. Rash morphology included diffuse erythema to violaceous patches with periorbital sparing and bilateral conjunctival injection, lymphadenopa­thy, facial edema, and mucosal ssuring [1]. Initial labs showed leukocytosis, eosin­ophilia, electrolyte abnormalities, and elevated creatine, while a punch biopsy demonstrated morphology suspicious morphology for DRESS syndrome, including eosinophils [1]. Although vancomycin is implicated in DRESS syndrome, more common inciting agents include antiepileptics, sulfonamides, and allopurinol [1]. Furthermore, cross-reactivity between vancomycin and other glycopeptide antibiot­ics such as teicoplanin and telavancin is shown to induce DRESS syndrome [8, 9]. The common heptapeptide core present in all glycopeptide antibiotics is implicated in cross-reactivity; however, this remains controversial due to demonstrated tolera­bility to vancomycin post-teicoplanin-induced DRESS [9]. Genetic predisposition contributes to the risk of these reactions; specically, the HLA-A*32:01 variant in European populations is strongly linked with vancomycin-associated DRESS syn­drome [9, 10]. HLA testing could improve patient safety and prevent high-risk drug reactions [10].
DRESS syndrome is a clinical diagnosis of exclusion using the European Registry of Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reaction Criteria (RegiSCAR) clinical