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- •Preface
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Diagnostic Approach Toward Fixed Drug Eruptions
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Hypereosinophilic Syndrome Treatment Options
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Discussion
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Alternative Diagnosis/Potential Misdiagnosis
- •Note
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Alternative Diagnosis/Potential Misdiagnosis
- •Note
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Alternative Diagnosis Considered/Potential Misdiagnosis
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Alternative Diagnoses
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Alternative Diagnoses
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Plan of Action, the Points Clinician Should Consider, Pitfalls to Avoid, and Pearls of Knowledge to Consider
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnoses
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Plan of Action, the Points Clinician Should Consider, Pitfalls to Avoid, and Pearls of Knowledge to Consider
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Case 1
- •Case 2
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Plan of Action, the Points Clinician Should Consider, Pitfalls to Avoid, and Pearls of Knowledge to Consider
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Plan of Action, the Points Clinician Should Consider, Pitfalls to Avoid, and Pearls of Knowledge to Consider
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Plan of Action, the Points Clinician Should Consider, Pitfalls to Avoid, and Pearls of Knowledge to Consider
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •The Plan of Action, Points to Consider, Pitfalls to Avoid, and Pearls of Knowledge
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Clinical Case Presentation
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Discussion
- •Conclusion
- •References
- •Introduction
- •The Lawyers Are Watching
- •Misdiagnosis Versus Missed Diagnosis
- •Prostate Cancer Misdiagnosis
- •Breast Cancer Misdiagnosis
- •Exemplar Cases
- •Cardiac Misdiagnosis
- •COVID Misdiagnosis
- •References
- •Introduction
- •Conclusion
- •References

Chapter 6
Misdiagnosis ofCommon Variable
Immune Deciency
KatarzynaKarpinska-Leydier
Learning Objectives
By the end of this presentation, the clinician will be able to:
1. Assess the overlapping features between common variable immune deciency
with granulomatous features and sarcoidosis.
2. Recall that sarcoidosis is a diagnosis of exclusion and identify steps necessary to
arrive at a condent diagnosis.
3. Interpret clinical ndings as features present over an indolent course to aim for
early detection and treatment of CVID.
4. Distinguish between coexisting immunodeciency and autoimmune disorders
where CVID is present and immunoglobulin replacement therapy is needed.
5. Apply the knowledge gained from this and similar cases where appropriate in
future clinical settings.
Introduction
Common variable immune deciency (CVID) and sarcoidosis may share the common feature of granulomatous inammation [1]. CVID is a primary immunodeciency disorder where impaired B-cell differentiation results in reduced serum IgG
with low IgA and IgM, resulting in a blunted response to immunizations and a
higher risk of recurrent bacterial infection [1–3]. It is the most common primary
immunodeciency, with a prevalence ranging from 1:25,000 to 1:50,000 [3].
Granulomatous features are seen in 8–22% [3]. Despite this, CVID is not always a
distinct and clear presentation which may lead to misdiagnosis, resulting in
K. Karpinska-Leydier (*)
Internal Medicine, Florida State University - Cape Coral Hospital,
Cape Coral, FL, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
H. Tohid et al. (eds.), The Misdiagnosis Casebook in Clinical Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28296-6_6
39

40
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
treatment delays and complications, including mortality [3]. Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disease diagnosed by exclusion [1, 4]. It may be either erroneously diagnosed without proper workup or coexist with other immune- mediated
diseases (IMDs) [1, 4]. Among IMDs associated with sarcoidosis, CVID shows the
strongest relationship compared with the general population, further adding to misdiagnosis in complex clinical presentation [4]. Moreover, CVID may present with
features similar to sarcoidosis, such as arthralgia and granulomatous lymphocytic
interstitial lung disease (GLILD) [5, 6]. Immunodeciency disorders among themselves also have a considerable overlap of features such as GLILD seen in approximately 10–30% of CVID cases and can specically impact prognosis and therapeutic
options [7, 8]. Sarcoidosis usually requires the demonstration of granulomatous
inammation, most commonly affecting the lungs and can involve the skin, lymph
nodes, and eyes [1]. The granulomatous variant of CVID may closely mimic sarcoidosis; therefore, clinical discernment is necessary to ensure early detection and
treatment for the appropriate diagnosis [9].
Clinical Case Presentation
In 1981, a 29-year-old male patient presented with cervical and axillary lymphadenopathy, transient thrombocytopenia, and splenomegaly. A lymph node biopsy from
the axilla demonstrated granulomatous inammation, interpreted as sarcoidosis.
His past medical history is signicant for employment as a farmer and agricultural
salesman and status as a lifelong nonsmoker. In 1998, he developed conjunctivitis,
cough, breathlessness, and recurrent peripheral lymphadenopathy. Nodular interstitial pulmonary shadowing and bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy were present.
Several investigations were performed at this time, including an elevated ACE level.
Hypogammaglobulinemia was demonstrated with low IgG 3.3g/L (normal 6–16),
IgM 0.7g/L (0.5–3), and IgA 0.5g/L (0.8–2.8) levels; however, this was not documented as being clinically relevant.
He began oral steroid therapy in 1999 for the treatment of sarcoidosis. In 2009,
he returned with increasing splenomegaly and thrombocytopenia, thought to be due
to idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP). Bone marrow trephine showed the
presence of granulomas and unremarkable megakaryocyte numbers. Within the
year, left vocal cord palsy developed and was considered related to sarcoidosis.
Over the next several years, he suffered from treatment-resistant ITP, systemic malaise, and increasing splenomegaly. In 2011, a prolonged right upper lobe cavitating
pneumonia prompted further workup, including a bronchoalveolar lavage growing
Haemophilus inuenzae on bronchoalveolar lavage and now recognized for agammaglobulinemia (serum IgG, IgA, and IgM all <0.3g/L). Sarcoidosis was initially
misdiagnosed and revised 30years later to common variable immune deciency,
complicated by disseminated granulomatous disease, splenomegaly, and idiopathic
(autoimmune) thrombocytopenia.

6 Misdiagnosis ofCommon Variable Immune Deciency
41
Differential Diagnosis
1. Common variable immune deciency (granulomatous variant)– CVID is a pri-
mary immunodeciency disorder with phenotypically normal B cells that under
or fail to produce immunoglobulins. Presentation is typically between ages
20–40 with an indolent history of recurrent pyogenic respiratory infection affecting both men and women equally. Granulomas may be a feature of some variants. Diagnosis involves serologic testing for low IgG, IgA, IgM, and plasma
cells and insufcient response to immunizations. Flow cytometry is normal for
subsets of both B and T cells. It is pertinent to treat early with IVIG replacement
and manage infections.
2. Sarcoidosis– This multisystem disorder primarily affects the lung with noncase-
ating granulomatous inammation features. It commonly affects African
American women. A chest X-ray is appropriate to assess for hilar lymphadenopathy; however, sarcoidosis is a diagnosis of exclusion. Biopsy showing granulomatous inammation and lab ndings of increased CD4/CD8 ratio and
increased ACE are supportive. Treatment involves glucocorticoid therapy and is
aimed at preventing progression.
What WasMisdiagnosed inThis Case andWhy?
Sarcoidosis was misdiagnosed in this case because of overlapping clinical features
with the granulomatous variant of CVID and unrecognized agammaglobulinemia
early in the clinical course.
Discussion
Allergy and immunology specialists are well versed in the nuances of common variable immune deciency (CVID) and its variants; however, typical disease hallmarks
of sarcoidosis may be misleading, and a diagnosis may be reached without appropriate investigation. Here, the patient was initially diagnosed with sarcoidosis in the
presence of nodular granulomatous inammation and telltale bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy; however, panhypogammaglobulinemia, which would indicate CVID,
was initially overlooked [1]. It is typical for manifestations of CVID to develop over
several years; however, serum immunoglobulins are necessary to distinguish
between these two differentials, as hypergammaglobulinemia is more likely in sarcoidosis, but hypogammaglobulinemia is suspicious for a primary immunodeciency [1, 5]. After the development of idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP),
increasing splenomegaly, and cavitating pneumonia with conrmed Haemophilus
inuenzae, the serum IgG, IgA, and IgM were reassessed [1]. Although these

42
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
symptoms could t into a clinical picture of sarcoidosis, CVID must be suspected in
patients with recurrent infections and immunodeciency; furthermore, concomitant
autoimmunity, including ITP, may offer further support but is not specic enough to
exclude sarcoidosis [1, 4–6] (Fig.6.1).
Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in granulomatous variants of CVID with interstitial lung disease (ILD) has a comparably high CD4:CD8 ratio to sarcoidosis; however, the “sarcoid-like” presentation is distinct from pulmonary sarcoidosis when
considering the entirety of clinical history and investigations [10–12]. Patients suspected of sarcoidosis may receive a diagnosis through radiological and histological
examination even with sufcient clinical observation but still may lack a full clinical picture without serological testing [13]. Further overlap between sarcoidosis and
CVID may be seen in the co-occurrence of chronic granulomatous disease (CGD)
with CVID, which is rare but documented [14]. Granulomas are histologically identical; however, a higher level of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in these patients may
account for granuloma development [14]. A less common presentation of tonsillar
granulomas raises suspicion for etiologies of malignancy, infection, or sarcoidosis;
however, in a setting of B-cell deciency, this may be the only presenting symptom
of CVID [15]. It is signicant to highlight that even in patients with CVID who
develop the co-occurrence of sarcoidosis, hypogammaglobulinemia is present, and
they are more likely to have recurrent infections, splenomegaly, and thrombocytopenia [16].
Routine assessment of serum immunoglobulins in patients with suspected sarcoidosis can lead to early disease recognition and immunoglobulin replacement
(IVIG), thereby reducing complications and mortality of CVID patients [1].
Granulomatous features do not respond to IVIG and usually require corticosteroids;
however, additional immunosuppressive protocols with azathioprine or rituximab
may be necessary for remission [3]. This regimen may increase the risk of infection,
Fig. 6.1 Comparison of CVID and sarcoidosis [3, 5]. CVID, common variable immune de-
ciency; Ig, immunoglobulin

6 Misdiagnosis ofCommon Variable Immune Deciency
43
but because the presence of granulomas is a result of an independent process, they
will not respond to IVIG alone [3]. Bronchiectasis is prevalent in the CVID population and is associated with poor prognosis; azathioprine improves the quality of life
in these patients [3]. Serum immunoglobulin measurement is an inexpensive initial
test that should be considered routine in patients suspected of sarcoidosis regardless
of infection history; this ensures that CVID is correctly identied at an earlier clinical presentation and allows for prompt IVIG replacement [1].
Conclusion
Both immunodeciency and autoimmune conditions may take several years of clinical evolution before diagnosis. Nevertheless, the arrival at a diagnosis is not an
infallible step to the correct treatment, as described here. Serum immunoglobulin
levels should be evaluated in suspected sarcoidosis, and granulomatous variants of
CVID should be properly excluded before a nal diagnosis is achieved. Patients
with CVID should start IVIG early to avoid recurrent infections and resulting
sequelae.
References
1. Shanks AM, Alluri R, Herriot R, Dempsey O. Misdiagnosis of common variable immune
deciency. BMJ Case Rep. 2014;2014:bcr2013202806. Published 2014 Apr 1. https://doi.
org/10.1136/bcr- 2013- 202806.
2. Pacheco C, Morais A, Rolo R, Ferreira L, Nabiço R, Cunha J.Chronic granulomatous disease
associated with common variable immunodeciency– 2 clinical cases. Rev Port Pneumol.
2014;20(4):219–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rppneu.2013.09.005.
3. Allaoui A, Moudatir M, Echchilal K, Alaoui FZ, Elkabli H.A misleading diagnosis of sarcoidosis in an older woman. Eur J case rep. Intern Med. 2017;4(4):000463. Published 2017 Feb 16.
https://doi.org/10.12890/2017_000463.
4. Brito-Zerón P, Pérez-Alvarez R, Feijoo-Massó C, etal. Coexistence of immune-mediated diseases in sarcoidosis. Frequency and clinical signicance in 1737 patients. Joint Bone Spine.
2021;88(6):105236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2021.105236.
5. Farshad S, Figueroa Rodriguez F, Halalau A, Skender J, Rasmussen C, Pevzner M.The central nervous system effects and mimicry of common variable immunodeciency (CVID):
a case report with literature review. Case Rep Rheumatol. 2019;2019:1–6. https://doi.
org/10.1155/2019/7623643.
6. Cowen JE, Stevenson J, Paravasthu M, et al. Common variable immunodeciency with
granulomatous- lymphocytic interstitial lung disease and preceding neurological involvement:
a case-report. BMC Pulm Med. 2020;20:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12890- 020- 01231- 6.
7. Sood AK, Funkhouser W, Handly B, Weston B, Wu EY. Granulomatous-lymphocytic interstitial lung disease in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a case report and literature review. Curr
Allergy Asthma Rep. 2018;18:3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882- 018- 0769- 7.
8. Perlman D, Sudheendra MT, Racilla E, Allen T, Bhargava M.Granulomatous-lymphocytic
interstitial lung disease mimicking sarcoidosis. : GLILD case series. Sarcoidosis Vasculitis
Diffuse Lung Dis. 2021;38(3):e2021025. https://doi.org/10.36141/svdld.v38i3.11114.

44
9. Ameratunga R, Ahn Y, Tse D, et al. The critical role of histology in distinguishing sarcoidosis from common variable immunodeciency disorder (CVID) in a patient with hypogammaglobulinemia. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2019;15:1. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13223- 019- 0383- 9.
10. Kollert F, Venhoff N, Goldacker S, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage cytology resembles sarcoidosis in a subgroup of granulomatous CVID. Eur Respir J. 2014;3:922–4. https://doi.
org/10.1183/09031936.00025513.
11. Bouvry D, Mouthon L, Brillet P-Y, etal. Granulomatosis-associated common variable immunodeciency disorder: a case-control study versus sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J. 2012;1:115–22.
https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00189011.
12. Naccache J-M, Bouvry D, Valeyre D. Bronchoalveolar lavage cytology resembles sarcoidosis in a subgroup of granulomatous CVID. Eur Respir J. 2014;3:924–5. https://doi.
org/10.1183/09031936.00170013.
13. Modrzewska K, Wiatr E, Langfort R, Oniszh K, Roszkowski-Sliz K.Pospolity zmienny niedobór odporności u chorej z podejrzeniem sarkoidozy [Common variable immunodeciency
in a patient with suspected sarcoidosis]. Pneumonol Alergol Pol. 2009;77(1):91–6.
14. Pacheco C, Morais A, Rolo R, Ferreira L, Nabiço R, Cunha J.Chronic granulomatous disease
associated with common variable immunodeciency– 2 clinical cases. Rev Port Pneumol.
2014;4:219–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rppneu.2013.09.005.
15. Laajala A, Kuismin O, Tastula M, et al. Tonsillar granuloma associated with hypogammaglobulinemia. Allergy, Asthma Clin Immunol. 2020;16:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13223- 020- 00441- 1.
16. Fasano MB, Sullivan KE, Sarpong SB, etal. Report of 8 cases and review of the literature.
Medicine. 1996;5:251–61. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005792- 199609000- 00002.
K. Kar pinska-Leydier

Chapter 7
Confusion ofCutaneous Reactions:
AMisdiagnosis ofDrug Reaction
withEosinophilia andSystemic Symptoms
(DRESS) Syndrome
KatarzynaKarpinska-Leydier
Learning Objectives
By the end of this presentation, the clinician will be able to:
1. Assess the overlapping presentation of drug reaction and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome and red man syndrome.
2. Recall the clinical timeline and risk factors of DRESS syndrome presentation.
3. Relate adverse drug reactions involving vancomycin or cross-reacting glycopeptide antibiotics with the onset of DRESS syndrome.
4. Recommend the use of the European Registry of Severe Cutaneous Adverse
Reaction Criteria (RegiSCAR) clinical score in the assessment of vancomycinassociated drug reactions.
5. Apply the knowledge gained from this and similar cases where appropriate in
future clinical settings.
Introduction
Rare and potentially fatal drug-induced reactions may not be immediate and can be
challenging to connect with the inciting substance [1]. This creates a conundrum
where the timing of drug administration, visual similarities between types of drug
reactions, and rarity of certain conditions lead to misdiagnosis [1]. Drug reaction
and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome commonly emerges
between 2 and 8weeks after drug administration with features of widespread rash,
K. Karpinska-Leydier (*)
Internal Medicine, Florida State University - Cape Coral Hospital,
Cape Coral, FL, USA
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
H. Tohid et al. (eds.), The Misdiagnosis Casebook in Clinical Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28296-6_7
45

46
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
fever, lymphadenopathy, transaminitis, and end-organ damage including kidney
injury [1, 2]. Drug-induced hypersensitivity reactions are relatively common among
hospitalized patients at approximately 3%; however, rarer conditions such as
DRESS syndrome must be considered in patients receiving vancomycin [2].
Vancomycin is widely used in US hospitals and produces a range of drug reactions ranging from the reasonably common red man syndrome to rarer DRESS syndrome [3]. It is the rst-line therapy for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) infections and an effective alternative for patients with contraindications
to beta-lactam agents and active against gram-positive anaerobes [4]. However, only
approximately 10% of hypersensitivity reactions to vancomycin are IgE-mediated
[4]. RMS is a comparatively more common vancomycin hypersensitivity reaction,
and often the rst differential considered [5]. However, it can be distinguished from
DRESS syndrome by a limited presentation with cutaneous eruptions more typical
in the upper body and onset within minutes or hours of vancomycin administration
[5]. RMS does not require prior sensitization to vancomycin as it is mediated
through MAS-related G protein-coupled receptor X2 [4]. Likewise, vancomycin
can be readministered without desensitization since it is not an IgE-dependent reaction [4]. Another similar differential to consider is Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic
epidermal necrolysis (SJS/TEN), where features are consistent with cutaneous
eruptions of the face and thorax, including blistering mucosal involvement, sparing
the palms and soles [5].
Risk factors for vancomycin hypersensitivity reactions are those that increase the
possibility of systemic absorption: these are often renal insufciency, high dose
(over 500mg/day), prolonged exposure (longer than 10 days), and severe Clostridium
difcile infection, including age over 65 years [6]. Some patients may be more
prone to vancomycin-related reactions leading to multisystem compromise due to
genetic variations in human leukocyte antigen (HLA) [7]. The case discussed here
illustrates the difculty in diagnosing DRESS syndrome linked with vancomycin
administration [1].
Clinical Case Presentation
A female patient aged 44years in a skilled nursing facility presented with a pruritic, diffuse, erythematous facial rash and a high fever persisting for 2 weeks. The
course of the rash was waxing and waning over the course of the day with sudden
progression every morning. Over the next week, she was given a trial of oral antihistamines without improvement. The rash grew to involve the patient’s legs and
evolved to encompass the upper extremities and trunk. Upon questioning, it was
determined that she had received intravenous vancomycin for osteomyelitis 4
weeks before the onset of the rash. This prompted suspicion for red man syndrome

7 Confusion of Cutaneous Reactions: A Misdiagnosis of Drug Reaction…
47
(RMS); however, no improvement was noted on the antihistamine trial. Physical
exam revealed bilateral conjunctival injection, facial edema, ssuring of lips, and
lymphadenopathy. The rash appeared diffuse and erythematous to violaceous
patches with periorbital sparing, discrete patches on the extremities, and trunk
without blistering. Initial labs showed leukocytosis with 13% eosinophilia, elevated creatinine, and electrolyte abnormalities which prompted suspicion for
acute kidney injury, indicating organ involvement. Punch biopsies conrmed
spongiosis with small Langerhans abscesses, interface dermatitis in lichenoid pattern with cellular inltrates in the upper dermis, and eosinophils. The cumulative
presentation of the patient’s history, physical examination, and histopathological
ndings determined that DRESS syndrome (drug reaction with eosinophilia and
systemic symptoms) is the correct diagnosis. This realization further explained
why treatment with antihistamines was ineffective and why it was ultimately discontinued in favor of management with high-dose oral prednisone and uids. She
showed signicant clinical improvement in cutaneous eruption and acute kidney
injury. The patient was discharged on an oral prednisone taper with outpatient
follow-up.
Differential Diagnosis
1. Drug reaction and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms syndrome (DRESS)–
DRESS syndrome is a potentially fatal delayed hypersensitivity caused by a
handful of medications. Onset is between 2 and 8 weeks after exposure,
andsymptoms including diffuse rash, facial edema, lymphadenopathy, fever,
and organ involvement may follow. Eosinophilia may be present. Diagnosis
is clinical and may include a skin biopsy but must meet RegiSCAR criteria.Prompt withdrawal of the inciting medication is necessary, in addition
to supportive care and corticosteroids, as was done in the resolution of
this case.
2. Red Man Syndrome– Red man syndrome is a vancomycin infusion-related ana-
phylactoid reaction that presents almost immediately on exposure with pruritis,
an erythematous rash of the upper body, and may include angioedema and chest
pain. The histamine release is proportionate to the vancomycin dose received.
Management is the immediate discontinuation of vancomycin, and it responds
well to H1 or H2 antihistamines. Management with antihistamines did not
improve the condition of this patient.
3. Stevens-Johnson Syndrome/Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis –These are clinically
similar severe drug hypersensitivity reactions aficting the skin. Antibiotics,
anti-seizure medications, and sulfur-containing drugs are most commonly
implicated. Lesions are widespread and macular, which coalesce, causing blis-

48
tering and necrosis. Diagnosis is clinical, and treatment is supportive in addition
to plasmapheresis, IVIG, or corticosteroids. In SJS, less than 10% of the body
is affected; in TEN, up to 30% of the body area is affected. This presentation did
not meet the criteria for SJS/TEN as it was nonblistering.
K. Kar pinska-Leydier
What WasMisdiagnosed inThis Case andWhy?
Drug reaction and eosinophilia with systemic symptoms syndrome was initially
misdiagnosed as red man syndrome and given antihistamines without improvement
until DRESS syndrome was recognized and treatment was started with high-dose
oral prednisone.
Discussion
Hospitalized patients present a complex scenario where several medications, an
unclear timeline, and varied clinical presentation convolute arrival at an accurate
diagnosis. The case discussed here exemplies the difculty of diagnosing DRESS
syndrome [1]. The patient was notably given intravenous vancomycin for more than
10 days to treat osteomyelitis prior to rash onset [1]. Antihistamines, the typical
therapy for RMS, were ineffective, and the rash spread to cover the legs, trunk, and
upper extremities [1]. Rash morphology included diffuse erythema to violaceous
patches with periorbital sparing and bilateral conjunctival injection, lymphadenopathy, facial edema, and mucosal ssuring [1]. Initial labs showed leukocytosis, eosinophilia, electrolyte abnormalities, and elevated creatine, while a punch biopsy
demonstrated morphology suspicious morphology for DRESS syndrome, including
eosinophils [1]. Although vancomycin is implicated in DRESS syndrome, more
common inciting agents include antiepileptics, sulfonamides, and allopurinol [1].
Furthermore, cross-reactivity between vancomycin and other glycopeptide antibiotics such as teicoplanin and telavancin is shown to induce DRESS syndrome [8, 9].
The common heptapeptide core present in all glycopeptide antibiotics is implicated
in cross-reactivity; however, this remains controversial due to demonstrated tolerability to vancomycin post-teicoplanin-induced DRESS [9]. Genetic predisposition
contributes to the risk of these reactions; specically, the HLA-A*32:01 variant in
European populations is strongly linked with vancomycin-associated DRESS syndrome [9, 10]. HLA testing could improve patient safety and prevent high-risk drug
reactions [10].
DRESS syndrome is a clinical diagnosis of exclusion using the European
Registry of Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reaction Criteria (RegiSCAR) clinical
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