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Файл:Педагогическое моделирование международной академической мобильности инженерных вузов. Учебное пособие
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Внутренние, психические модели (как совокупность
психических образов) человека, в которых отражается
субъективная картина мира или его фрагменты (например,
психические модели профессии, профессиональной среды,
профессиональной деятельности, Я-концепция и др.). Эти
психические модели «обеспечивают» деятельность человека,
определяют его отношение к миру и к себе. Выдающийся
отечественный психолог В. Н. Пушкин [22] в 1965 г. писал, что
«нет ни одного вида человеческого труда, в основе которого не
было бы соответствующей формы информационного
моделирования мира» [21], а в качестве предмета изучения
психологической науки учёный предлагал рассматривать
«выяснение закономерностей построения и работы мозговых
информационных моделей внешнего мира», обслуживающих
поведение человека [22].
Объктивизированные («рукотворные») модели – системы
объектов или знаков, которые воспроизводят некоторые
существенные свойства системы-оригинала (вербальные и
знаковые модели профессии, профессиональной среды,
профессиональной деятельности, самосознания человека и т.
п.). Они создаются на основе предварительного изучения и
достигнутого исследователем понимания психических
процессов (психологической структуры деятельности,
самосознания и т. д.), а также фрагментов объективного мира,
в котором происходят изучаемые явления (например,
конкретная деятельность человека). Такие модели, как
своеобразные дидактические средства, важны для обеспечения
профессионального обучения и профессиональной подготовки
[11] и связаны, в том числе, с педагогическим
проектированием [9]. Такие модели могут иметь описательный
характер1.
1
При подготовке данной главы использовались
материалы открытого Интернет-ресурса Wikipedia
(https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Модель
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Моделирование)
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Вопросы к главе 1
1. Дайте характеристику понятиям «модель», «моделирование».
2. Какие требования предъявляют к моделям? Охарактеризуйте
их.
3. Для чего применяются модели в различных сферах
деятельности?
4. Приведите примеры использования моделей в науке и
образовании.
5. Подумайте, какие виды моделирования используются в
учебном процессе.
6. Какие виды моделей вам было бы интересно применять в
процессе учебы?
7. Назовите известные вам виды моделирования.
8. Приведите примеры использования моделирования в реальной
жизни.
9. Разберите эти модели на структурные составляющие и
опишите их.
10. Дайте характеристику одному из выбранных видов
моделирования.
11. Какие этапы моделирования вы знаете?
12. Занимались ли вы моделированием?
13. Выберете интересующую вас профессию. В соответствии с
профессиональными особенностями опишите
психологическую модель выбранной профессиональной
деятельности.
14. С какими сложностями вы столкнулись при выполнении
предыдущего задания?
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Глава 2
Models and Modelling
Model, modeling or modelling may refer to:
Conceptual model, a representation of a system using general rules
and concepts
Physical model or plastic model, a physical representation in three
dimensions of an object, such as a globe or model airplane
Scale model, a physical representation of an object which maintains
general relationships between its constituent aspects
Scientific model, a simplified and idealized understanding of
physical systems
Mathematics and computing
Mathematical model, a representation of a system using
mathematical concepts and language
Model (mathematical logic), in model theory, a set along with a
collection of finitary operations, and relations that are defined on it,
satisfying a given collection of axioms
o Model theory, the study of mathematical structures using
tools from mathematical logic
3D model, a representation of any three-dimensional surface via
specialized software
Computer model, a simulation to reproduce behavior of a system
Conceptual model (computer science), a representation of entities
and relationships between them
Solid modeling, a consistent set of principles for mathematical and
computer modeling of three-dimensional solids
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Statistical model, in applied statistics, a parameterized set of
probability distributions
Surrogate model, a programmed mathematical entity, physically or
empirically based, that represents a designable engineering device
or system; sometimes designating "mapped coarse model" in space
mapping
Psychology and neurology
Internal model (motor control), a neural process that simulates the
response of the motor system in order to estimate the outcome of a
motor command
Mental model, someone's thought process about how something
works
Modelling (psychology), learning by imitating or observing a
person's behavior
Other uses in science and technology
Economic model, a theoretical construct representing economic
processes by a set of variables and a set of relationships between
them.
Model organism, a non-human species that is extensively studied to
understand particular biological phenomena
Conceptual model
A conceptual model is a representation of a system, made of the
composition of concepts which are used to help people know, understand,
or simulate a subject the model represents. It is also a set of concepts. Some
models are physical objects; for example, a toy model which may be
assembled, and may be made to work like the object it represents.
The term conceptual model may be used to refer to models which are
formed after a conceptualization or generalization process [50]. Conceptual
models are often abstractions of things in the real world whether physical or
social. Semantics studies are relevant to various stages of concept formation
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and use as Semantics is basically about concepts, the meaning that thinking
beings give to various elements of their experience.
Models of concepts and models that are conceptual
The term conceptual model is normal. It could mean "a model of
concept" or it could mean "a model that is conceptual." A distinction can be
made between what models are and what models are models of. With the
exception of iconic models, such as a scale model of Winchester Cathedral,
most models are concepts. But they are, mostly, intended to be models of
real world states of affairs. The value of a model is usually directly
proportional to how well it corresponds to a past, present, future, actual or
potential state of affairs. A model of a concept is quite different because in
order to be a good model it need not have this real world correspondence
[40]. In artificial intelligence conceptual models and conceptual graphs are
used for building expert systems and knowledge-based systems; here the
analysts are concerned to represent expert opinion on what is true not their
own ideas on what is true.
Type and scope of conceptual models
Conceptual models (models that are conceptual) range in type from
the more concrete, such as the mental image of a familiar physical object, to
the formal generality and abstractness of mathematical models which do not
appear to the mind as an image. Conceptual models also range in terms of
the scope of the subject matter that they are taken to represent. A model
may, for instance, represent a single thing (e.g. the Statue of Liberty), whole
classes of things (e.g. the electron), and even very vast domains of subject
matter such as the physical universe. The variety and scope of conceptual
models is due to then variety of purposes had by the people using them.
Conceptual modeling is the activity of formally describing some aspects of
the physical and social world around us for the purposes of understanding
and communication." [51]
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Fundamental objectives
A conceptual model's primary objective is to convey the fundamental
principles and basic functionality of the system which it represents. Also, a
conceptual model must be developed in such a way as to provide an easily
understood system interpretation for the models users. A conceptual model,
when implemented properly, should satisfy four fundamental objectives
[33].
1. Enhance an individual's understanding of the representative system
2. Facilitate efficient conveyance of system details between
stakeholders
3. Provide a point of reference for system designers to extract system
specifications
4. Document the system for future reference and provide a means for
collaboration
The conceptual model plays an important role in the overall system
development life cycle. Figure 1 [59] below, depicts the role of the
conceptual model in a typical system development scheme. It is clear that if
the conceptual model is not fully developed, the execution of fundamental
system properties may not be implemented properly, giving way to future
problems or system shortfalls. These failures do occur in the industry and
have been linked to; lack of user input, incomplete or unclear requirements,
and changing requirements. Those weak links in the system design and
development process can be traced to improper execution of the
fundamental objectives of conceptual modeling. The importance of
conceptual modeling is evident when such systemic failures are mitigated
by thorough system development and adherence to proven development
objectives/techniques.
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Figure 1. Role of the conceptual model in a typical system development
scheme
Models in Philosophy and Science
Mental model
In cognitive psychology and philosophy of mind, a mental model is a
representation of something in the mind [49], but a mental model may also
refer to a nonphysical external model of the mind itself [48].
Metaphysical models
A metaphysical model is a type of conceptual model which is
distinguished from other conceptual models by its proposed scope; a
metaphysical model intends to represent reality in the broadest possible way
[57]. This is to say that it explains the answers to fundamental questions
such as whether matter and mind are one or two substances; or whether or
not humans have free will.
Logical models
In logic, a model is a type of interpretation under which a particular
statement is true. Logical models can be broadly divided into ones which
only attempt to represent concepts, such as mathematical models; and ones
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which attempt to represent physical objects, and factual relationships,
among which are scientific models.
Model theory is the study of (classes of) mathematical structures such
as groups, fields, graphs, or even universes of set theory, using tools from
mathematical logic. A system that gives meaning to the sentences of a
formal language is called a model for the language. If a model for a
language moreover satisfies a particular sentence or theory (set of
sentences), it is called a model of the sentence or theory. Model theory has
close ties to algebra and universal algebra.
Mathematical models
Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited
to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game
theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given
model involving a variety of abstract structures.
A more comprehensive type of mathematical model [60] uses a
linguistic version of category theory to model a given situation. Akin to
entity-relationship models, custom categories or sketches can be directly
translated into database schemas. The difference is that logic is replaced by
category theory, which brings powerful theorems to bear on the subject of
modeling, especially useful for translating between disparate models (as
factors between categories).
Scientific models
A scientific model is a simplified abstract view of a complex reality.
A scientific model represents empirical objects, phenomena, and physical
processes in a logical way. Attempts to formalize the principles of the
empirical sciences use an interpretation to model reality, in the same way
logicians axiomatize the principles of logic. The aim of these attempts is to
construct a formal system for which reality is the only interpretation. The
world is an interpretation (or model) of these sciences, only insofar as these
sciences are true [37].
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Social and political models
Business process modelling
Figure 2. Abstraction for Business process modelling [36].
In business process modelling the enterprise process model is often
referred to as the business process model. Process models are core concepts
in the discipline of process engineering. Process models are:
Processes of the same nature that are classified together into a
model.
A description of a process at the type level.
Since the process model is at the type level, a process is an
instantiation of it.
The same process model is used repeatedly for the development of
many applications and thus, has many instantiations.
One possible use of a process model is to prescribe how things
must/should/could be done in contrast to the process itself which is really
what happens. A process model is roughly an anticipation of what the
process will look like. What the process shall be will be determined during
actual system development [56].
System model
A system model is the conceptual model as a result of system
modeling that describes and represents a system. A system comprises
multiple views such as planning, requirement (analysis), design,
implementation, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output
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data views. A system model is required to describe and represent all these
multiple views.
The system model describes and represents the multiple views
possibly using two different approaches. The first one is the nonarchitectural approach and the second one is the architectural approach.
The non-architectural approach respectively picks a model for each
view. For example, Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method
(SSADM), picking the Structure Chart (SC) for structure description and
the Data Flow Diagram (DFD) for behavior description, is categorized into
the non-architectural approach.
The architectural approach, instead of picking many heterogeneous
and unrelated models, will use only one single coalescence model. For
example, System architecture, using the Architecture Description Language
(ADL) for both structure and behavior descriptions, is categorized into the
architectural approach.
Scientific modelling
Scientific modelling is a scientific activity, the aim of which is to
make a particular part or feature of the world easier to understand, define,
quantify, visualize, or simulate by referencing it to existing and usually
commonly accepted knowledge. It requires selecting and identifying
relevant aspects of a situation in the real world and then using different
types of models for different aims, such as conceptual models to better
understand, operational models to operationalize, mathematical models to
quantify, and graphical models to visualize the subject. Modelling is an
essential and inseparable part of many scientific disciplines, each of which
have their own ideas about specific types of modelling [34, 42].
There is also an increasing attention to scientific modelling [39] in
fields such as science education, philosophy of science, systems theory, and
knowledge visualization. There is growing collection of methods,
techniques and meta-theory about all kinds of specialized scientific
modelling.
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